Battle of Bunker Hill
Part of the American Revolutionary War
The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill by John Trumbull
Date
June 17, 1775
Location
Charlestown, Massachusetts
42°22′34.9″N 71°3′38.8″WCoordinates: 42°22′34.9″N 71°3′38.8″W
Result
British Pyrrhic victory[1]
Territorial
changes
British capture Charlestown peninsula
Belligerents
Great Britain
Militias of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island
Commanders and leaders
British Army:
William Howe
Sir Robert Pigot
James Abercrombie +
John Pitcairn †
Henry Clinton
Royal Navy:
Samuel Graves
Israel Putnam
William Prescott
Joseph Warren †
Seth Pomeroy
John Stark
(Warren and Pomeroy declined command and fought as individuals)
Strength
3,000+[2]
about 2,400[3]
Casualties and losses
226 killed,
(including 19 officers)
828 soldiers wounded,
(including 62 officers)
Total: 1,054[4]
115 killed,
305 wounded,
30 captured (20 POWs died)
Total: 450[5]
[hide]v · d · e
Boston campaign, 1774–76
Powder Alarm – Lexington and Concord – Siege of Boston – Chelsea Creek – Bunker Hill – Knox artillery train – Dorchester Heights
The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775, mostly on and around Breed's Hill, during the Siege of Boston early in the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after the adjacent Bunker Hill, which was peripherally involved in the battle and was the original objective of both colonial and British troops, and is occasionally referred to as the "Battle of Breed's Hill."
On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the colonial forces besieging Boston learned that the British generals were planning to send troops out from the city to occupy the unoccupied hills surrounding the city. In response to this intelligence, 1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, constructed an earthen redoubt on Breed's Hill, and built lightly fortified lines across most of the Charlestown Peninsula.
When the British were alerted to the presence of the new position the next day, they mounted an attack against them. After two assaults on the colonial lines were repulsed with significant British casualties, the British finally captured the positions on the third assault, after the defenders in the redoubt ran out of ammunition. The colonial forces retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, suffering their most significant losses on Bunker Hill.
While the result was a victory for the British, they suffered heavy losses: over 800 wounded and 226 killed, including a notably large number of officers. The battle is seen as an example of a Pyrrhic victory, because the immediate gain (the capture of Bunker Hill) was modest and did not significantly change the state of the siege, while the cost (the loss of nearly a third of the deployed forces) was high. Meanwhile, colonial forces were able to retreat and regroup in good order having suffered few casualties. Furthermore, the battle demonstrated that relatively inexperienced colonial forces were willing and able to stand up to regular army troops in a pitched battle.
Contents
[hide] 1 Geography
2 British planning
3 Prelude to battle 3.1 Fortification of Breed's Hill
3.2 British preparations
3.3 Colonists reinforce their positions
4 Assault
5 Aftermath
6 Political consequences
7 Analysis 7.1 Colonial faults
7.2 British faults
8 "The whites of their eyes"
9 Notable participants
10 Commemorations
11 See also
12 References 12.1 Major sources
12.2 Minor sources
12.3 Commemorations
13 Further reading
14 External links 14.1 Pages about the battle
14.2 Pages about people in the battle
14.3 Other external pages
Geography
Boston, situated on a peninsula,[6] was largely protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it, which were dominated by British warships. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the colonial militia, a force of about 15,000 men[7] had surrounded the town, and effectively besieged it. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the only land access to Boston itself (the Roxbury Neck), but, lacking a navy, were unable to control or even contest British domination of the waters of the harbor. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, and were able to be resupplied and reinforced by sea.[8] They were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely.
However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, which could be used to advantage.[9] If the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that cannon from Fort Ticonderoga were later transported to the Boston area.[10]
The Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus (known as the Charlestown Neck) at its northwest, extending about 1 mile (1.6 km) southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet (34 m), lay at the northern end of the peninsula. Breed's Hill, at a height of 62 feet (19 m), was more southerly and nearer to Boston.[11] The town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1,000 feet (305 m) separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, where Copp's Hill was at about the same height as Breed's Hill. While the British retreat from Concord had ended in Charlestown, General Gage, rather than immediately fortifying the hills on the peninsula, had withdrawn those troops to Boston the day after that battle, turning the entire Charlestown Peninsula into a no man's land.[12]
British planning
The Battle of Bunker Hill, by Howard Pyle, 1897.
Throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, three Generals arrived on HMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning with them to break out of the city,[13] finalizing a plan on June 12.[14] This plan began with the taking of the Dorchester Neck, fortifying the Dorchester Heights, and then marching on the colonial forces stationed in Roxbury. Once the southern flank had been secured, the Charlestown heights would be taken, and the forces in Cambridge driven away. The attack was set for June 18.[15]
On June 13, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was notified, by express messenger from the Committee of Safety in Exeter, New Hampshire, that a New Hampshire gentleman "of undoubted veracity" had, while visiting Boston, overheard the British commanders making plans to capture Dorchester and Charlestown.[16] On June 15, the Massachusetts Committee of Safety decided that additional defenses needed to be erected.[17] General Ward directed General Israel Putnam to set up defenses on the Charlestown Peninsula, specifically on Bunker Hill.[18]
Prelude to battle
The first British attack on Bunker Hill. Shaded areas are hills.
Fortification of Breed's Hill
On the night of June 16, colonial Colonel William Prescott led about 1,200 men onto the peninsula in order to set up positions from which artillery fire could be directed into Boston.[19] This force was made up of men from the regiments of Prescott, Putnam (the unit was commanded by Thomas Knowlton), James Frye, and Ebenezer Bridge.[20] At first, Putnam, Prescott, and their engineer, Captain Richard Gridley, disagreed as to where they should locate their defense. Some work was performed on Bunker Hill, but Breed's Hill was closer to Boston and viewed as being more defensible. Arguably against orders, they decided to build their primary redoubt there.[21] Prescott and his men, using Gridley's outline, began digging a square fortification about 130 feet (40 m) on a side with ditches and earthen walls. The walls of the redoubt were about 6 feet (1.8 m) high, with a wooden platform inside on which men could stand and fire over the walls.[22]
The works on Breed's Hill did not go unnoticed by the British. General Clinton, out on reconnaissance that night, was aware of them, and tried to convince Gage and Howe that they needed to prepare to attack the position at daylight. British sentries were also aware of the activity, but most apparently did not think it cause for alarm.[23] Then, in the early predawn, around 4:00 am, a sentry on board HMS Lively spotted the new fortification, and notified her captain. Lively opened fire, temporarily halting the colonists' work. Aboard his flagship HMS Somerset, Admiral Samuel Graves awoke, irritated by the gunfire that he had not ordered.[24] He stopped it, only to have General Gage countermand his decision when he became fully aware of the situation in the morning. He ordered all 128 guns in the harbor, as well as batteries atop Copp's Hill in Boston, to fire on the colonial position, which had relatively little effect.[25] The rising sun also alerted Prescott to a significant problem with the location of the redoubt – it could easily be flanked on either side.[23] He promptly ordered his men to begin constructing a breastwork running down the hill to the east, deciding he did not have the manpower to also build additional defenses to the west of the redoubt.[26]
1775 map of the Boston area (contains some inaccuracies)
British preparations
When the British generals met to discuss their options, General Clinton, who had urged an attack as early as possible, recommended an attack beginning from the Charlestown Neck that would cut off the colonists' retreat, reducing the process of capturing the new redoubt to one of starving out its occupants. However, he was outvoted by the other three generals. Howe, who was the senior officer present and would lead the assault, was of the opinion that the hill was "open and easy of ascent and in short would be easily carried".[27] Orders were then issued to prepare the expedition.[28]
When General Gage surveyed the works from Boston with his staff, Loyalist Abijah Willard recognized his brother-in-law Colonel Prescott. "Will he fight?" asked Gage. "[A]s to his men, I cannot answer for them;" replied Willard, "but Colonel Prescott will fight you to the gates of hell."[29] Prescott lived up to Willard's word, but his men were not so resolute. When the colonists suffered their first casualty, Asa Pollard of Billerica,[30] a young private killed by cannon fire, Prescott gave orders to bury the man quickly and quietly, but a large group of men gave him a solemn funeral instead, with several deserting shortly thereafter.[29]
It took almost six hours for the British to organize an infantry force and to gather up and inspect the men on parade. General Howe was to lead the major assault, drive around the colonial left flank, and take them from the rear. Brigadier General Robert Pigot on the British left flank would lead the direct assault on the redoubt, and Major John Pitcairn led the flank or reserve force. It took several trips in longboats to transport Howe's initial forces (consisting of about 1,500 men) to the eastern corner of the peninsula, known as Moulton's Point.[31][32] By 2 pm, Howe's chosen force had landed.[31] However, while crossing the river, Howe noted the large number of colonial troops on top of Bunker Hill. Believing these to be reinforcements, he immediately sent a message to Gage, requesting additional troops. He then ordered some of the light infantry to take a forward position along the eastern side of the peninsula, alerting the colonists to his intended course of action. The troops then sat down to eat while they waited for the reinforcements.[32]
Colonists reinforce their positions
The second British attack on Bunker Hill.
Prescott, seeing the British preparations, called for reinforcements. Among the reinforcements were Joseph Warren, the popular young leader of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety, and Seth Pomeroy, an aging Massachusetts militia leader. Both of these men held commissions of rank, but chose to serve as infantry.[31] Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three small v-shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott's breastwork. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200 men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed. Stark's men, who did not arrive until after Howe landed his forces (and thus filled a gap in the defense that Howe could have taken advantage of, had he pressed his attack sooner),[33] took positions along the breastwork on the northern end of the colonial position. When low tide opened a gap along the Mystic River to the north, they quickly extended the fence with a short stone wall to the water's edge.[33][34] Colonel Stark placed a stake about 100 feet (30 m) in front of the fence and ordered that no one fire until the regulars passed it.[35] Just prior to the action, further reinforcements arrived, including portions of Massachusetts regiments of Colonels Brewer, Nixon, Woodbridge, Little, and Major Moore, as well as Callender's company of artillery.[36]
Behind the colonial lines, confusion reigned. Many units sent toward the action stopped before crossing the Charlestown Neck from Cambridge, which was under constant fire from gun batteries to the south. Others reached Bunker Hill, but then, uncertain about where to go from there, milled around. One commentator wrote of the scene that "it appears to me there never was more confusion and less command".[37] While General Putnam was on the scene attempting to direct affairs, unit commanders often misunderstood or disobeyed orders.[37]
Assault
By 3 pm, the British reinforcements, which included the 47th Foot and the 1st Marines, had arrived, and the British were ready to march.[38] Brigadier General Pigot's force, gathering just south of Charlestown village, were taking casualties from sniper fire, and Howe asked Admiral Graves for assistance in clearing out the snipers. Graves, who had planned for such a possibility, ordered incendiary shot fired into the village, and then sent a landing party to set fire to the town.[39] The smoke billowing from Charlestown lent an almost surreal backdrop to the fighting, as the winds were such that the smoke was kept from the field of battle.[40]
Pigot, commanding the 5th, 38th, 43rd, 47th, and 52nd regiments, as well as Major Pitcairn's Marines, were to feint an assault on the redoubt. However, they continued to be harried by snipers in Charlestown, and Pigot, when he saw what happened to Howe's advance, ordered a retreat.[41]
General Howe led the light infantry companies and grenadiers in the assault on the American left flank, expecting an easy effort against Stark's recently arrived troops.[42] His light infantry were set along the narrow beach, in column, in order to turn the far left flank of the colonial position.[43] The grenadiers were deployed in the middle. They lined up four deep and several hundred across. As the regulars closed, John Simpson, a New Hampshire man, prematurely fired, drawing an ineffective volley of return fire from the regulars.[citation needed] When the regulars finally closed within range, both sides opened fire. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the regulars, using the fence to steady and aim their muskets, and benefit from a modicum of cover. With this devastating barrage of musket fire, the regulars retreated in disarray, and the militia held their ground.[44]
The third and final British attack on Bunker Hill
The regulars reformed on the field and marched out again. This time, Pigot was not to feint; he was to assault the redoubt, possibly without the assistance of Howe's force. Howe, instead of marching against Stark's position along the beach, marched instead against Knowlton's position along the rail fence. The outcome of the second attack was much the same as the first. One British observer wrote, "Most of our Grenadiers and Light-infantry, the moment of presenting themselves lost three-fourths, and many nine-tenths, of their men. Some had only eight or nine men a company left ..."[45] Pigot did not fare any better in his attack on the redoubt, and again ordered a retreat.[46] Meanwhile, in the rear of the colonial forces, confusion continued to reign. General Putnam tried, with only limited success, to send additional troops from Bunker Hill to Breed's Hill to support the men in the redoubt and along the defensive lines.[47]
The British rear was also in some disarray. Wounded soldiers that were mobile had made their way to the landing areas, and were being ferried back to Boston, and the wounded lying on the field of battle were the source of moans and cries of pain.[48] General Howe, deciding that he would try again, sent word to General Clinton in Boston for additional troops. Clinton, who had watched the first two attacks, sent about 400 men from the 2nd Marines and the 63rd Foot, and then followed himself to help rally the troops. In addition to the new reserves, he also convinced about 200 of the wounded to form up for the third attack.[49] During the interval between the second and third assaults, General Putnam continued trying to direct troops toward the action. Some companies, and leaderless groups of men, moved toward the action; others retreated. John Chester, a Connecticut captain, seeing an entire company in retreat, ordered his company to aim muskets at that company to halt its retreat; they turned about and headed back to the battlefield.[50]
The third assault, concentrated on the redoubt (with only a feint on the colonists' flank), was successful, although the colonists again poured musket fire into the British ranks, and it cost the life of Major Pitcairn.[51] The defenders had run out of ammunition, reducing the battle to close combat. The British had the advantage once they entered the redoubt, as their troops were equipped with bayonets on their muskets while most of the colonists were not. Colonel Prescott, one of the last colonists to leave the redoubt, parried bayonet thrusts with his normally ceremonial sabre.[52] It is during the retreat from the redoubt that Joseph Warren was killed.[53]
The retreat of much of the colonial forces from the peninsula was made possible in part by the controlled retreat of the forces along the rail fence, led by John Stark and Thomas Knowlton, which prevented the encirclement of the hill. Their disciplined retreat, described by Burgoyne as "no flight; it was even covered with bravery and military skill", was so effective that most of the wounded were saved;[54] most of the prisoners taken by the British were mortally wounded.[54] General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of the colonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The colonists suffered most of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 pm, the colonists had retreated over the Charlestown Neck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.[53]
Aftermath
The Bunker Hill Monument
The British had taken the ground but at a great loss; they suffered 1,054 casualties (226 dead and 828 wounded), with a disproportionate number of these officers. The casualty count was the highest suffered by the British in any single encounter during the entire war.[55] General Clinton, echoing Pyrrhus of Epirus, remarked in his diary that "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America."[1] British dead and wounded included 100 commissioned officers, a significant portion of the British officer corps in North America.[56] Much of General Howe's field staff was among the casualties.[57] Major Pitcairn had been killed, and Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombie fatally wounded. General Gage, in his report after the battle, reported the following officer casualties (listing lieutenants and above by name):[58]
1 lieutenant colonel killed
2 majors killed, 3 wounded
7 captains killed, 27 wounded
9 lieutenants killed, 32 wounded
15 sergeants killed, 42 wounded
1 drummer killed, 12 wounded
The colonial losses were about 450, of whom 140 were killed. Most of the colonial losses came during the withdrawal. Major Andrew McClary was technically the highest ranking colonial officer to die in the battle; he was hit by cannon fire on Charlestown neck, the last person to be killed in the battle. He was later commemorated by the dedication of Fort McClary in Kittery, Maine.[59] A serious loss to the Patriot cause, however, was the death of Dr. Joseph Warren. He was the President of Massachusetts' Provincial Congress, and he had been appointed a Major General on June 14. His commission had not yet taken effect when he served as a volunteer private three days later at Bunker Hill.[60] Only thirty men were captured by the British, most of them with grievous wounds; twenty died while held prisoner. The colonials also lost numerous shovels and other entrenching tools, as well as 5 out of the 6 cannon they had brought to the peninsula.[61]
Political consequences
When news of the battle spread through the colonies, it was reported as a colonial loss, as the ground had been taken by the enemy, and significant casualties were incurred. George Washington, who was on his way to Boston as the new commander of the Continental Army, received news of the battle while in New York City. The report, which included casualty figures that were somewhat inaccurate, gave Washington hope that his army might prevail in the conflict.[62]
"We have ... learned one melancholy truth, which is, that the Americans, if they were equally well commanded, are full as good soldiers as ours."[63]
A British officer in Boston, after the battle
The Massachusetts Committee of Safety, seeking to repeat the sort of propaganda victory it won following the battles at Lexington and Concord, commissioned a report of the battle to send to England. Their report, however, did not reach England before Gage's official account arrived on July 20. His report unsurprisingly caused friction and argument between the Tories and the Whigs, but the casualty counts alarmed the military establishment, and forced many to rethink their views of colonial military capability.[64] King George's attitude toward the colonies hardened, and the news may have contributed to his rejection of the Continental Congress' Olive Branch Petition, the last substantive political attempt at reconciliation. Sir James Adolphus Oughton, part of the Tory majority, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of the colonies, "the sooner they are made to Taste Distress the sooner will [Crown control over them] be produced, and the Effusion of Blood be put a stop to."[65] This hardening of the British position also led to a hardening of previously weak support for the rebellion, especially in the southern colonies, in favor of independence.[65]
Gage's report had a more direct effect on his own career. His dismissal from office was decided just three days after his report was received, although General Howe did not replace him until October 1775.[66] Gage wrote another report to the British Cabinet, in which he repeated earlier warnings that "a large army must at length be employed to reduce these people", that would require "the hiring of foreign troops."[67]
Analysis
Much has been written in the wake of this battle over how it was conducted. Both sides made strategic and tactical missteps which could have altered the outcome of the battle. While hindsight often gives a biased view, some things seem to be apparent after the battle that might reasonably have been within the reach of the command of the day.
Colonial faults
The colonial forces, while nominally under the overall command of General Ward, with General Putnam leading in the field, often acted quite independently. This was evident in the opening page of the drama, when a tactical decision was made that had strategic implications. Colonel Prescott and his staff, apparently in contravention of orders, decided to fortify Breed's Hill rather than Bunker Hill.[21] The fortification of Breed's Hill was more provocative; it would have put offensive artillery closer to Boston. It also exposed the forces there to the possibility of being trapped, as they probably could not properly defend against attempts by the British to land troops and take control of Charlestown Neck. If the British had taken that step, they might have had a victory with many fewer casualties.[68]
A historic map of Bunker Hill featuring military notes
While the front lines of the colonial forces were generally well managed, the scene behind them, especially once the action began, was significantly disorganized, due at least in part to a poor chain of command. Only some of the militias operated directly under Ward's and Putnam's authority,[69] and some commanders also disobeyed orders, staying at Bunker Hill rather than joining in the defense on the third British assault. Several officers were subjected to court martial and cashiered.[70] Colonel Prescott was of the opinion that the third assault would have been repulsed, had his forces in the redoubt been reinforced with either more men, or more supplies of ammunition and powder.[71]
British faults
The British leadership, for its part, was slow to act once the works on Breed's Hill were spotted. It was 2 pm when the troops were ready for the assault, roughly ten hours after the Lively first opened fire. This leisurely pace gave the colonial forces time to reinforce the flanking positions that had been poorly defended.[72] Gage and Howe decided that a frontal assault on the works would be a simple matter, when an encircling move (gaining control of Charlestown Neck), would have given them a more resounding victory.[68] (This move would not have been without risks of its own, as the colonists could have made holding the Neck expensive with fire from the high ground in Cambridge.) But the British leadership was excessively optimistic, believing that "two regiments were sufficient to beat the strength of the province".[73]
"View of the Attack on Bunker's Hill with the Burning of Charlestown" by Lodge
Once in the field, Howe, rather than focusing on the redoubt, opted (twice) to dilute the force attacking the redoubt with a flanking maneuver against the colonial left. It was only with the third attack, when the flank attack was merely a feint,[74] and the main force (now also reinforced with additional reserves) was squarely targeted at the redoubt, that the attack succeeded.[75]
Following the taking of the peninsula, the British arguably had a tactical advantage that they could have used to press into Cambridge. General Clinton proposed this to Howe; having just led three assaults with grievous casualties, he declined the idea.[76] Howe was eventually recognized by the colonial military leaders to be a tentative decision-maker, to his detriment; in the aftermath of the Battle of Long Island, he again had tactical advantages that might have delivered Washington's army into his hands, but again refused to act.[77]
"The whites of their eyes"
The famous order "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes" was popularized in stories about the battle of Bunker Hill. It is uncertain as to who said it there, since various histories, including eyewitness accounts,[78] attribute it to Putnam, Stark, Prescott or Gridley, and it may have been said first by one, and repeated by the others. It was also not an original statement. It was used by General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, when his troops defeated Montcalm's army on September 13, 1759.[79][page needed] The earliest similar quote came from the Battle of Dettingen on June 27, 1743, where Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his Regiment, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, not to fire until they could "see the white's of their e'en."[80] The phrase was also used by Prince Charles of Prussia in 1745, and repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great, and may have been mentioned in histories the colonial military leaders were familiar with.[81] Whether or not it was actually said in this battle, it was clear that the colonial military leadership were regularly reminding their troops to hold their fire until the moment when it would have the greatest effect, especially in situations where their ammunition would be limited.[82]
Notable participants
According to the John Trumbull painting, this flag of New England was carried by the colonists during the battle.
This flag, known as the Bunker Hill flag, is also associated with the battle.
A significant number of notable people fought in this battle. Henry Dearborn and William Eustis, for example, went on to distinguished military and political careers; both served in Congress, the Cabinet, and in diplomatic posts. Others, like John Brooks, Henry Burbeck, Christian Febiger, Thomas Knowlton, and John Stark, became well known for later actions in the war.[83][84] Stark became known as the "Hero of Bennington" for his role in the 1777 Battle of Bennington. Free African-Americans also fought in the battle, notable examples include Barzillai Lew, Salem Poor, and Peter Salem[85][86] (the leadership would not allow slaves to fight, as this was anathema to the very idea of the freedom for which they were fighting). Another notable participant was Daniel Shays, who later became famous for his army of protest in Shays' Rebellion.[87] Israel Potter was immortalized in Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile, a novel by Herman Melville.[88][89]
Commemorations
John Trumbull's painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (pictured above), while an idealized and inaccurate depiction of Warren's death, shows a number of participants in the battle. John Small, a British officer who was among those storming the redoubt, was a friend of Israel Putnam's and an acquaintance of Trumbull. He is depicted holding Warren and preventing a redcoat from bayoneting him.[90]
The Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk that stands 221 feet (67 m) high on Breed's Hill. On June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, the cornerstone of the monument was laid by the Marquis de Lafayette and an address delivered by Daniel Webster.[91] (When Lafayette died, he was buried next to his wife at the Cimetière de Picpus under soil from Bunker Hill, which his son Georges sprinkled upon him.)[92] The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge was specifically designed to evoke this monument.[93] There is also a statue of William Prescott showing him calming his men down.
The National Park Service operates a museum dedicated to the battle near the monument, which is part of the Boston National Historical Park.[94] A cyclorama of the battle was added in 2007 when the museum was renovated.[95]
Bunker Hill clipper ship
Bunker Hill Day, observed every June 17, is a legal holiday in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (which includes the city of Boston), as well as Somerville in Middlesex County. Prospect Hill, site of colonial fortifications overlooking the Charlestown neck, is now located in Somerville, which was previously part of Charlestown.[96][97] State institutions in Massachusetts (such as public institutions of higher) located in Boston also celebrate the holiday.[98][99] However, the state's FY2011 budget requires all state and municipal offices in Suffolk County be open on Bunker Hill Day and Evacuation Day.[100]
On June 16 and 17, 1875, the centennial of the battle was celebrated with a military parade and a reception featuring notable speakers, among them General William Tecumseh Sherman and Vice President Henry Wilson. It was attended by dignitaries from across the country.[101] Celebratory events also marked the sesquicentennial (150th anniversary) in 1925 and the bicentennial in 1975.[102][103]
Thursday, September 29, 2011
Battle of Long Island
Battle of Long Island
Part of the American Revolutionary War
The Delaware Regiment at the Battle of Long Island.
Date
August 27, 1776
Location
Kings County, Long Island, New York
40.665°N 73.981°WCoordinates: 40.665°N 73.981°W
Result
Decisive British victory
Belligerents
United States
Great Britain
Hesse-Kassel
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
Israel Putnam
William Alexander
William Howe,
Charles Cornwallis,
Henry Clinton
Strength
10,000[1]
20,000[2]
Casualties and losses
300 killed
~700 wounded
1,000 captured[3]
several guns captured
64 killed
293 wounded
31 missing[4][5]
[show]v · d · e
New York and New Jersey
1776–1777
The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the first battle in which an army of the United States engaged, having declared itself a nation only the month before.
After defeating the British in the Siege of Boston on March 17, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief, brought the Continental Army to defend New York City, then limited to the southern end of Manhattan Island. There he established defenses and waited for the British to attack. In July the British, under the command of General William Howe, landed a few miles across the harbor on Staten Island, where they were slowly reinforced by ships in Lower New York Bay over the next month and a half, bringing their total force to 32,000 men. With the British fleet in control of the entrance to New York Harbor, Washington knew the difficulty in holding the city. Believing Manhattan would be the first target, he moved the bulk of his forces there.
On August 22, the British landed on the western end of Long Island, across The Narrows from Staten Island, more than a dozen miles south from the East River crossings to Manhattan. After five days of waiting, the British attacked American defenses on the Guana (Gowanus) Heights. Unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, although a stand by 400 Maryland troops prevented most of the army from being captured. The remainder of the army fled to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege but, on the night of August 29–30, Washington evacuated the entire army to Manhattan without the loss of material or a single life. Washington and the Continental Army were driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and forced to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.
Contents
[hide] 1 Background 1.1 Boston to New York
1.2 Defenses and discipline
1.3 British arrival
1.4 Invasion of Long Island
2 Battle 2.1 Night march
2.2 Opening engagements
2.3 Retreat
3 Aftermath 3.1 Casualties
3.2 Escape to Manhattan
3.3 Conclusion of the campaign
4 Commemorations
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Background
Boston to New York
Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the British Army was trapped in Boston. On March 4, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, had artillery placed on Dorchester Heights.[6] The British Commander, William Howe, knew that he could not hold the city, with the artillery on the heights that would threaten the British Fleet in Boston Harbor. Two weeks later, on March 17, Howe had the army evacuate the city and they headed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.[7]
After the British abandoned Boston, Washington began to send regiments to New York City where he believed that the British would attack next because of its strategic importance.[8][9] Washington left on April 4. The army took a route through Rhode Island and Connecticut, and civilians came out to cheer and offer food and drink to the soldiers.[10] On April 5, the army paraded into Providence and thousands of civilians came out to see Washington and the army. Eight days later, on April 13, Washington arrived in New York.[11] Washington took up headquarters on Broadway and quickly set to work. In February, Washington had sent his second in command, Charles Lee, to New York to build the defenses for the city.[12] Lee remained in control of the city's defenses until Congress sent him to South Carolina in March, and the job of preparing the defenses was left to General William Alexander (Lord Stirling).[11] Because Lee and Stirling had too few troops to do the job, Washington found the defenses only half done.[13] Lee had concluded that if the British commanded the sea it would be impossible to hold the city, so he built his defenses so as to force the British to pay with heavy casualties if they were to take any ground from the Americans.[12] Lee had barricades and redoubts established in and around the city along with a bastion, called Fort Stirling, on Brooklyn Heights.[14] While in New York, Lee sent out troops to clear Long Island of Loyalists.[15]
Defenses and discipline
Infantry of the Continental Army.
Washington began moving troops to Long Island in early May.[16] Within a short time, there were a few thousand men on Long Island. On the eastern side of the hamlet of Brooklyn, three more forts were under construction to support Fort Stirling, which was to the west of the hamlet. The three forts were named Fort Putnam (for Rufus Putnam), Fort Greene (for Nathanael Greene) and Fort Box (for Major Daniel Box).[17] Fort Putnam was furthest to the north, with Greene slightly to the southwest and Box slightly further southwest. All of these forts were surrounded by a large ditch and they were all connected by a line of entrenchments. The forts had 36 cannons total, mostly 18-pounders.[18] Fort Defiance was also being built at this time, located further southwest, past Fort Box, near present day Red Hook.[17] In addition to these new forts, a mounted battery was established on Governors Island, cannons were placed at Fort George and more cannons placed at the Whitehall Dock, which sat on the East River.[19] Hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways.[20]
Washington had been authorized by Congress to recruit an army of up to 28,500 men; he had, however, only 19,000 troops when he arrived in New York.[21] There was almost no discipline in the army and simple orders had to be repeated constantly. Men fired their muskets off in camp, ruined their flints, used their bayonets as knives to cut food, and often did not bother to clean their muskets.[22] As this was the first time most men had seen others from different regions, there were occasional differences that caused conflict.[23]
Due to a shortage of artillerymen, the commander of the artillery, Henry Knox, persuaded Washington to transfer 500 or 600 men who lacked muskets to the artillery.[19] In early June, Knox and Greene inspected the land at the north end of Manhattan and decided to establish Fort Washington there. Another fort, Fort Constitution, later named Fort Lee, was planned for the other side of the Hudson River from Fort Washington.[19] The purpose of these forts was to stop British ships from sailing up the Hudson.[19]
British arrival
"The British fleet in the lower bay" (Harpers Magazine, 1876) depicts the British fleet amassing off the shores of Staten Island in the summer of 1776.
On June 28, Washington learned that the British fleet had set sail from Halifax on June 9 and were heading toward New York.[24] On June 29, signals were sent from men stationed on Staten Island that the British fleet had appeared. Within a few hours 45 British ships dropped anchor in Lower New York Bay.[25] Less than a week later, there were 130 ships off Staten Island under the command of Richard Howe, the brother of the General.[26] The population of New York went into panic at the sight of the British ships, alarms went off and troops immediately rushed to their posts.[25] On July 2, British troops began to land on Staten Island. The Continental regulars on the island took a few shots at the British before fleeing and the citizen's militia switched over to the British side.[26]
On July 6, news reached New York that Congress had voted for independence four days earlier.[27] On Tuesday, July 9, at 6:00 in the evening, Washington had several brigades march onto the Commons of the City to hear the Declaration of Independence read. After the end of the reading, a mob ran down to Bowling Green, where, with ropes and bars, they tore down the gilded lead statue of King George III on his horse.[28] In their fury the crowd cut off the statue's head, severed the nose, and mounted what remained of the head on a spike outside a tavern, and the rest of the statue was dragged to Connecticut and melted down into musket balls.[29]
On July 12, two British ships, the Phoenix and the Rose, sailed up the harbor toward the mouth of the Hudson.[29] The American batteries stationed at Fort George, Red Hook and Governors Island opened fire, but the British returned fire into the city. The ships sailed along the New Jersey shore and continued up the Hudson, sailing past Fort Washington and arriving by nightfall at Tarrytown, the widest part of the Hudson.[30] The goal of the British ships was to cut off American supplies and encourage Loyalist support. The only casualties of the day were six Americans who were killed when their own cannon blew up.[30]
British troops in the type of flat-bottmed boat used for the invasion of Long Island
The next day, July 13, General Howe attempted to open negotiations with the Americans.[31] Howe sent a letter to Washington delivered by Lieutenant Philip Brown, who arrived under the flag of truce. The letter was addressed George Washington, Esq.[31] Brown was met by Joseph Reed, who on Washington's orders had hurried to the waterfront accompanied by Henry Knox and Samuel Webb. Washington asked his officers whether it should be received or not, as it did not recognize his rank as General, and they unanimously said no.[32] Brown was told by Reed that there was no one in the army with that address. On July 16 Howe tried again, this time with the address George Washington, Esq., etc., etc. but it was again declined.[33] The next day Howe sent Captain Nisbet Balfour to ask if Washington would meet with Howe's adjutant face to face, and a meeting was scheduled for July 20.[33] Howe's adjutant was Colonel James Patterson. Patterson told Washington that Howe had come with powers to grant pardons but Washington said, "Those who have committed no fault want no pardon."[33] Patterson departed soon after.[33] Washington's performance during the meeting was praised throughout the United States.[34]
Meanwhile, British ships continued to arrive.[35] On August 1, 45 ships with Generals Henry Clinton and Charles Cornwallis arrived, along with 3,000 troops. By August 12, 3,000 more British troops and another 8,000 Hessians had arrived.[36] At this point the British fleet numbered over 400 ships, including 73 war ships, and 32,000 troops were camped on Staten Island. Faced with this large force, Washington was unsure as to where the British would attack.[37] Both Greene and Reed thought that the British would attack Long Island, but Washington felt that a British attack on Long Island might be a diversion for the main attack on Manhattan. Washington broke his army in half, stationing half of it on Manhattan, and the other half on Long Island; the army on Long Island was commanded by Greene.[37] On August 20 Greene became ill and was forced to move to a house in Manhattan where he rested to recover. John Sullivan was placed in command until Greene was well enough to resume command.[38]
Denyse's Ferry, the first place at which the Hessians and British landed on Long Island August 22, 1776 by A. Brown. This high-point overlooking The Narrows was an American artillery position and bombarded by the British before the invasion, but the actual landing took place further east at Gravesend Bay (around to the left from the perspective of this illustration) where the conditions were more favorable for the small British boats carrying the troops.
Invasion of Long Island
At 5:10 a.m., on August 22, an advance guard of 4,000 British troops, under the command of Clinton and Cornwallis, left Staten Island to land on Long Island.[39] At 8:00 am, all 4,000 troops landed on the shore of Gravesend Bay, unopposed. Colonel Edward Hand's Pennsylvanian riflemen had been stationed on the shore, but they did not oppose the landings and fell back, killing cattle and burning farmhouses on the way.[40] By noon, 15,000 troops had landed on shore along with 40 pieces of artillery. As hundreds of Loyalists came to greet the British troops, Cornwallis pushed on with the advance guard, advancing six miles on to the island and establishing camp at the village of Flatbush; Cornwallis was given orders to advance no further.[40][41]
Washington received word of the landings the same day they occurred, but was informed that the number was 8,000 to 9,000 troops.[42] This convinced Washington that it was the feint he had predicted and therefore he only sent 1,500 more troops to Brooklyn, bringing the total troops on Long Island to 6,000. On August 24, Washington replaced Sullivan with Israel Putnam who commanded the troops on Long Island.[43] Putnam arrived on Long Island the next day along with six battalions. Also that day the British troops on Long Island received 5,000 Hessian reinforcements, bringing their total to 20,000.[44] Although there was little fighting on the days immediately after the landing, some small skirmishes did take place with American marksmen armed with rifles picking off British troops from time to time.[45]
The Battle of Long Island, 27 August 1776
The American plan was that Putnam would direct the defenses from Brooklyn Heights while Sullivan and Stirling and their troops would be stationed on the Guana Heights.[46][47] The heights were up to 150 feet high and blocked the most direct route to Brooklyn Heights.[46][47] Washington believed by stationing men on the heights that heavy casualties could be inflicted on the British before the troops fell back to the main defenses at Brooklyn Heights.[48] There were three main passes through the heights; the Gowanus Road furthest to the west, the Flatbush Road slightly farther to the east, in the center of the American line where it was expected the British would attack, and the Bedford Road farthest to the east. Stirling was responsible to defend the Gowanus Road with 500 men, and Sullivan was to defend the Flatbush and Bedford Roads where there were 1,000 and 800 men respectively.[46] 6,000 troops would remain behind at Brooklyn Heights. There was one lesser-known pass through the heights farther to the east called the Jamaica Pass. This pass was defended by just five militia officers on horses.[49]
On the British side, General Clinton learned of the almost undefended Jamaica Pass from local Loyalists.[50] Clinton drew up a plan and gave it to William Erskine to propose to Howe. Clinton's plan had the main army making a night march and going through the Jamaica Pass to turn the American flank while other troops would keep the Americans busy in front.[51] On August 26, Clinton received word from Howe that the plan would be used, and that Clinton was to command the advance guard of the main army of 10,000 men on the march through the Jamaica Pass. While they made the night march, General James Grant's British troops along with some Hessians, a total of 4,000 men, would attack the Americans in front to distract them from the main army coming on their flank.[51] Howe told Clinton to be ready to move out that night, August 26.[51]
Washington's defeat revealed his deficiencies as a strategist who split his forces, his inexperienced generals who misunderstood the situation, and his raw troops that fled in disorder at the first shots.[52] On the other hand his daring nighttime retreat has been seen by some historians as one of his greatest military feats.[53] Other historians concentrate on the failure of British naval forces to prevent the withdrawal. Washington had no warships, but did use shore batteries, underwater trees and obstacles, fireships that retarded British movements.[54]
Battle
Night march
1776 map of British troop movements and battle locations
At 9:00 p.m. the British moved out.[55] No one, except the commanders—not even the officers—knew of the plan. Clinton led a crack brigade of light infantry with fixed bayonets in front, followed by Cornwallis who had eight battalions and 14 artillery pieces. Cornwallis was, in turn, followed by Howe and Hugh Percy with six battalions, more artillery, and baggage.[55] The column consisted of 10,000 men who stretched out over two miles. Three Loyalist farmers led the column toward the Jamaica Pass. The British had left their campfires burning to deceive the Americans into thinking that nothing was happening.[55] The column headed northeast until it reached what later became the village of New Lots when it headed directly north, toward the Heights.
The column had yet to run into any American troops when they reached Howard's Tavern (also known as Howard's Half-Way House), just a few hundred yards from the Jamaica Pass.[56] The tavern keeper William Howard and his son William Jr. were forced to act as guides to show the British the way to the Rockaway Foot Path, an old Indian trail that skirted the Jamaica Pass to the west (located today in the Cemetery of the Evergreens). Five minutes after leaving the tavern, the five American militia officers stationed at the Pass were captured without a shot fired, as they thought the British were Americans.[57] Clinton interrogated the men and they informed him that they were the only troops guarding the pass. By dawn the British were through the pass and and stopped so the troops were could rest.[57] At 9:00 am, they fired two heavy cannons to signal the Hessian troops below Battle Pass to begin their frontal assault against Sullivan's men deployed on the two hills flanking the pass while Clinton's troops simultaneously flanked the American positions from the east.[57]
The Rockaway Foot Path
Howard's Tavern as it appeared in 1776; it was demolished in 1880
William Howard Jr. describes meeting General Howe:
“It was about 2 o’clock in the morning of the 27th of August that I was awakened by seeing a soldier at the side of my bed. I got up and dressed and went down to the barroom, where I saw my father standing in one corner with three British soldiers before him with muskets and bayonets fixed. The army was then lying in the field in front of the house ...General Howe and another officer were in the barroom. General Howe wore a camlet cloak over his regimentals. After asking for a glass of liquor from the bar, which was given him, he entered into familiar conversation with my father, and among other things said, ‘I must have some one of you to show me over the Rockaway Path around the pass.’
“My father replied, ‘We belong to the other side, General, and can’t serve you against our duty.’ General Howe replied, ‘That is alright; stick to your country, or stick to your principles, but Howard, you are my prisoner and must guide my men over the hill.’ My father made some further objection, but was silenced by the general, who said, ‘You have no alternative. If you refuse I shall shoot you through the head.’”
Opening engagements
The Battle Pass area, also known as Flatbush Pass, is located in modern-day Prospect Park. Lithograph, c.1866
In the early morning hours of August 27, 1776, the first shots of the Battle of Brooklyn were fired near the Red Lion Inn (near present-day 39st. and 4th ave.) when a British scouting party from the diversionary force led by General James Grant encountered American pickets stationed at the Red Lion. According to some accounts the British troops were foraging in a watermelon patch. After an initial exchange of musket fire the British initially retreated then returned with reinforcements, the American troops then fled in up the Gowanus Road toward the Vechte-Cortelyou House. Major Edward Burd who had been in command was captured along with a lieutenant and 15 privates.[58]
Colonel Samuel Holden Parsons a lawyer from Connecticut who had recently secured a commission in the Continental Army, and Colonel Samuel Atlee of Pennsylvania, a veteran of the French and Indian War were stationed further north on the Gowanus Road. The two colonels roused from their sleep from the sound of musket fire managed to intercept the troops fleeing from the British at the Red Lion and form them into a skirmish line. At daybreak the Americans would be reinforced with 400 troops sent by General Sullivan stationed at the Flatbush Pass.
At 3:00 am, Putnam was awakened by a guard and told that the British were attacking through the Gowanus Pass.[59]Putnam lit signals to Washington who was on Manhattan and then rode south to warn Stirling of the attack.[60] Stirling led two regiments of Delaware and Maryland Continentals, a total of 1,600 troops, taking them to establish line to stop the British advance.[59][60] The British and the Americans engaged each other from about 200 yards apart, both sides under cannon fire, and the British twice assaulted Stirling's troops on the high ground, but each time they were repulsed. The Americans, however, were unaware that this was not the main British attack.[61]
The Hessians, in the center under the command of General von Heister, began to bombard the American lines.[62] The Hessian brigades, however, did not attack and Sullivan sent four hundred of his men to reinforce Stirling. Howe fired his signal guns at 9:00 AM and the Hessians began to advance in front while the main army came at Sullivan from the rear.[62] Sullivan left his advance guard to hold off the Hessians while he turned the rest of his force around to fight the British. Heavy casualties mounted up between the Americans and the British and men on both sides fled out of fear.[62] Sullivan attempted to calm his men and tried to lead a retreat. By this point the Hessians had overrun the advance guard on the heights and the American left had completely collapsed.[63] Hand-to-hand fighting followed with the Americans swinging their muskets and rifles like clubs to save their lives. Many of the Americans who surrendered were bayoneted by the Hessians.[64] Sullivan, despite the chaos, managed to evacuate most of his men to Brooklyn Heights though Sullivan himself was captured.[63]
Retreat
The front of the Vechte-Cortelyou House; the Maryland 400 commanded by Lord Stirling charged the house held by over two thousand British troops six times, 256 died in the assaults and over 100 were captured or wounded.
In Battle of Long Island, 1858 by Alonzo Chappel, Stirling leads the attack of the Maryland 400 while the rest of the American troops escape across the marsh and Gowanus Creek
At 9:00 am, Washington arrived from Manhattan.[65] Washington realized that he had been wrong about a feint on Long Island and he ordered more troops to Brooklyn from Manhattan.[65] Washington's location on the battlefield is not known for sure, because accounts differ, but most likely he was at Brooklyn Heights where he could view the battle.[66]
On the American right, to the west, Stirling still held the line against Grant.[66] Stirling held on for four hours, still unaware of the British flanking maneuver, and some of his own troops thought they were winning the day because the British had been unable to take their position. However, by 11:00 am, Grant, reinforced by 2,000 marines, hit Stirling's center and Stirling was attacked on his left by the Hessians.[64][66] Stirling pulled back but British troops were, at this point, coming at him in his rear too. The only escape route left was across a saltmarsh and Gowanus Creek which was 80 yards wide, on the other side of which was Brooklyn Heights.[67]
Stirling ordered all of his troops, except 400 Maryland troops under the command of Major Mordecai Gist, to cross the creek. The 400 Maryland troops attacked the British, trying to buy time for the others to withdraw.[67] Stirling and Gist led the 400 men in six consecutive attacks against the British. After the last assault the remaining troops retreated across the Gowanus Creek. Some of the men who tried to cross the marsh were bogged down in the mud under musket fire and others who could not swim were captured. Stirling was surrounded and, unwilling to surrender to the British, broke through the British lines to von Heister's Hessians and surrendered to them. 256 Maryland troops were killed in the assaults in front of the Old Stone House and over 100 were captured or wounded.[68] Washington, watching from a redoubt on nearby Cobble Hill (intersection of today's Court Street and Atlantic Avenue), was to have said, "Good God, what brave fellows I must this day lose!".[67] [69] Although the troops did not want to stop advancing, Howe ordered all of his troops to halt, against the wishes of many of his officers, who believed that they should push on to Brooklyn Heights. Howe disagreed.[69] Rather than assaulting the entrenched American position, he began more methodical siege operations to penetrate it.[70]
Howe's failure to press the attack, and the reasons for it, have been disputed. He may have wished to avoid the casualties his army suffered when attacking the Continentals under similar circumstances at the Battle of Bunker Hill.[70] He may also, in the European gentleman-officer tradition, have been giving Washington an opportunity to conclude his position was hopeless and surrender. Howe wrote[when?] that it would have been "inconsiderate and even criminal" to attack the surrounded Americans.[71]
Aftermath
Retreat at Long Island by J.C. Armytage (1820-1897) depicting Washington personally directing the retreat across the East River on the night of August 29, 1776
Casualties
At the time, it was by far the largest battle ever fought in North America.[69] If the Royal Navy is included, over 40,000 men took part in the battle. Howe reported his losses as 59 killed, 268 wounded and 31 missing. The Hessian casualties were 5 killed and 26 wounded.[4] The Americans suffered much heavier losses. About 300 had been killed and over 1,000 captured.[3]
Escape to Manhattan
Washington and the army were surrounded on Brooklyn Heights with the East River to their backs.[72] As the day went on, the British began to dig trenches, slowly coming closer and closer to the American defenses. By doing this, the British would not have to cross over open ground to assault the American defenses as they did in Boston the year before.[73] Despite this perilous situation, Washington ordered 1,200 more men from Manhattan to Brooklyn on August 28.[72] The men that came over were two Pennsylvania regiments and Colonel John Glover's regiment from Marblehead, Massachusetts. In command of the Pennsylvania troops was Thomas Mifflin who, after arriving, volunteered to inspect the outer defenses and report back to Washington.[74] In these outer defenses, small skirmishes were still taking place. On the afternoon of August 28, it began to rain and Washington had his cannon bombard the British well into the night.[75]
The Foot of Wall Street And Ferry House - 1746. The Manhattan side of the East River crossing, known then as the Brooklyn Ferry, as it looked in the mid 1700's.[76]
As the rain continued Washington sent a letter instructing General William Heath, who was at Kings Bridge between Manhattan and what is now the Bronx, to send every flat bottomed boat or sloop without delay in case battalions of infantry from New Jersey might come to reinforce their position.[77] At 4:00 p.m., on August 29, Washington held a meeting with his generals. Mifflin advised Washington to retreat to Manhattan while Mifflin and his Pennsylvania Regiments made up the rear guard, holding the line until the rest of the army had withdrawn.[77] The Generals agreed unanimously with Mifflin that retreat was the best option and Washington had orders go out by the evening.[78]
The troops were told that they were to gather up all their ammunition and baggage and prepare for a night attack.[78] By 9:00 p.m., the sick and wounded began to move to the Brooklyn Ferry in preparation for being evacuated. At 11:00 p.m. Glover and his Massachusetts troops, who were sailors and fishermen, began to evacuate the troops.[79]
Washington evacuating Army
175th Anniversary Issue of 1951. Accurate depiction of Fulton Ferry House at right. Flat bottom ferry boats in East River are depicted in background.[80][81]
As more troops were evacuated, more troops were ordered to withdraw from the lines and march to the ferry landing. Wagon wheels were muffled, and men were forbidden to talk.[79] Mifflin's rear guard was tending campfires to deceive the British and convince them that nothing was going on. At 4:00 am, on August 30, Mifflin was informed that it was his unit's turn to evacuate.[82] Mifflin told the man who had been sent to order him to leave, Major Alexander Scammell, that he must be mistaken, but Scammell insisted that he was not and Mifflin ordered his troops to move out. When Mifflin's troops were within a half mile of the ferry landing Washington rode up and demanded to know why they were not at their defenses. Edward Hand, who was leading the troops, tried to explain what had happened, but Mifflin arrived shortly.[83] Washington exclaimed "Good God! General Mifflin, I am afraid you have ruined us!" Mifflin explained that he had been told that it was his turn to evacuate by Scammell; Washington told him it had been a mistake. Mifflin then led his troops back to the outer defenses.[83]
Artillery, supplies, and troops were all being evacuated across the river at this time but it was not going as fast as Washington had anticipated and daybreak soon came.[83] A fog settled in and concealed the evacuation from the British. British patrols noticed that there did not seem to be any American pickets and thus began to search the area. While they were doing this Washington, the last man left, stepped onto the last boat.[73] At 7:00 am, the last American troops landed in Manhattan.[84] All 9,000 troops had been evacuated without a single life lost.[84]
Conclusion of the campaign
The British fleet in New York Harbor just after the battle.
The British were stunned to find that Washington and the army had escaped.[84] The next day, August 30, the British troops occupied the American fortifications. When news of the battle reached London, it caused many festivities to take place.[85] Bells were rung across the city, candles were lit in windows and King George III gave General Howe the Order of the Bath.[86]
General Howe remained inactive for the next half month, not attacking until September 15 when he landed a force at Kip's Bay.[87] The British quickly occupied the city. On September 21, a fire of uncertain origin destroyed a quarter of New York City. In the immediate aftermath of the fire Nathan Hale was executed for spying. Although the Continentals were able to mount a victory at Harlem Heights in mid-September, Howe defeated Washington in battle again at White Plains and then again at Fort Washington.[88] Because of these defeats, Washington and the army retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.
Part of the American Revolutionary War
The Delaware Regiment at the Battle of Long Island.
Date
August 27, 1776
Location
Kings County, Long Island, New York
40.665°N 73.981°WCoordinates: 40.665°N 73.981°W
Result
Decisive British victory
Belligerents
United States
Great Britain
Hesse-Kassel
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
Israel Putnam
William Alexander
William Howe,
Charles Cornwallis,
Henry Clinton
Strength
10,000[1]
20,000[2]
Casualties and losses
300 killed
~700 wounded
1,000 captured[3]
several guns captured
64 killed
293 wounded
31 missing[4][5]
[show]v · d · e
New York and New Jersey
1776–1777
The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the first battle in which an army of the United States engaged, having declared itself a nation only the month before.
After defeating the British in the Siege of Boston on March 17, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief, brought the Continental Army to defend New York City, then limited to the southern end of Manhattan Island. There he established defenses and waited for the British to attack. In July the British, under the command of General William Howe, landed a few miles across the harbor on Staten Island, where they were slowly reinforced by ships in Lower New York Bay over the next month and a half, bringing their total force to 32,000 men. With the British fleet in control of the entrance to New York Harbor, Washington knew the difficulty in holding the city. Believing Manhattan would be the first target, he moved the bulk of his forces there.
On August 22, the British landed on the western end of Long Island, across The Narrows from Staten Island, more than a dozen miles south from the East River crossings to Manhattan. After five days of waiting, the British attacked American defenses on the Guana (Gowanus) Heights. Unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, although a stand by 400 Maryland troops prevented most of the army from being captured. The remainder of the army fled to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege but, on the night of August 29–30, Washington evacuated the entire army to Manhattan without the loss of material or a single life. Washington and the Continental Army were driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and forced to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.
Contents
[hide] 1 Background 1.1 Boston to New York
1.2 Defenses and discipline
1.3 British arrival
1.4 Invasion of Long Island
2 Battle 2.1 Night march
2.2 Opening engagements
2.3 Retreat
3 Aftermath 3.1 Casualties
3.2 Escape to Manhattan
3.3 Conclusion of the campaign
4 Commemorations
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Background
Boston to New York
Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the British Army was trapped in Boston. On March 4, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, had artillery placed on Dorchester Heights.[6] The British Commander, William Howe, knew that he could not hold the city, with the artillery on the heights that would threaten the British Fleet in Boston Harbor. Two weeks later, on March 17, Howe had the army evacuate the city and they headed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.[7]
After the British abandoned Boston, Washington began to send regiments to New York City where he believed that the British would attack next because of its strategic importance.[8][9] Washington left on April 4. The army took a route through Rhode Island and Connecticut, and civilians came out to cheer and offer food and drink to the soldiers.[10] On April 5, the army paraded into Providence and thousands of civilians came out to see Washington and the army. Eight days later, on April 13, Washington arrived in New York.[11] Washington took up headquarters on Broadway and quickly set to work. In February, Washington had sent his second in command, Charles Lee, to New York to build the defenses for the city.[12] Lee remained in control of the city's defenses until Congress sent him to South Carolina in March, and the job of preparing the defenses was left to General William Alexander (Lord Stirling).[11] Because Lee and Stirling had too few troops to do the job, Washington found the defenses only half done.[13] Lee had concluded that if the British commanded the sea it would be impossible to hold the city, so he built his defenses so as to force the British to pay with heavy casualties if they were to take any ground from the Americans.[12] Lee had barricades and redoubts established in and around the city along with a bastion, called Fort Stirling, on Brooklyn Heights.[14] While in New York, Lee sent out troops to clear Long Island of Loyalists.[15]
Defenses and discipline
Infantry of the Continental Army.
Washington began moving troops to Long Island in early May.[16] Within a short time, there were a few thousand men on Long Island. On the eastern side of the hamlet of Brooklyn, three more forts were under construction to support Fort Stirling, which was to the west of the hamlet. The three forts were named Fort Putnam (for Rufus Putnam), Fort Greene (for Nathanael Greene) and Fort Box (for Major Daniel Box).[17] Fort Putnam was furthest to the north, with Greene slightly to the southwest and Box slightly further southwest. All of these forts were surrounded by a large ditch and they were all connected by a line of entrenchments. The forts had 36 cannons total, mostly 18-pounders.[18] Fort Defiance was also being built at this time, located further southwest, past Fort Box, near present day Red Hook.[17] In addition to these new forts, a mounted battery was established on Governors Island, cannons were placed at Fort George and more cannons placed at the Whitehall Dock, which sat on the East River.[19] Hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways.[20]
Washington had been authorized by Congress to recruit an army of up to 28,500 men; he had, however, only 19,000 troops when he arrived in New York.[21] There was almost no discipline in the army and simple orders had to be repeated constantly. Men fired their muskets off in camp, ruined their flints, used their bayonets as knives to cut food, and often did not bother to clean their muskets.[22] As this was the first time most men had seen others from different regions, there were occasional differences that caused conflict.[23]
Due to a shortage of artillerymen, the commander of the artillery, Henry Knox, persuaded Washington to transfer 500 or 600 men who lacked muskets to the artillery.[19] In early June, Knox and Greene inspected the land at the north end of Manhattan and decided to establish Fort Washington there. Another fort, Fort Constitution, later named Fort Lee, was planned for the other side of the Hudson River from Fort Washington.[19] The purpose of these forts was to stop British ships from sailing up the Hudson.[19]
British arrival
"The British fleet in the lower bay" (Harpers Magazine, 1876) depicts the British fleet amassing off the shores of Staten Island in the summer of 1776.
On June 28, Washington learned that the British fleet had set sail from Halifax on June 9 and were heading toward New York.[24] On June 29, signals were sent from men stationed on Staten Island that the British fleet had appeared. Within a few hours 45 British ships dropped anchor in Lower New York Bay.[25] Less than a week later, there were 130 ships off Staten Island under the command of Richard Howe, the brother of the General.[26] The population of New York went into panic at the sight of the British ships, alarms went off and troops immediately rushed to their posts.[25] On July 2, British troops began to land on Staten Island. The Continental regulars on the island took a few shots at the British before fleeing and the citizen's militia switched over to the British side.[26]
On July 6, news reached New York that Congress had voted for independence four days earlier.[27] On Tuesday, July 9, at 6:00 in the evening, Washington had several brigades march onto the Commons of the City to hear the Declaration of Independence read. After the end of the reading, a mob ran down to Bowling Green, where, with ropes and bars, they tore down the gilded lead statue of King George III on his horse.[28] In their fury the crowd cut off the statue's head, severed the nose, and mounted what remained of the head on a spike outside a tavern, and the rest of the statue was dragged to Connecticut and melted down into musket balls.[29]
On July 12, two British ships, the Phoenix and the Rose, sailed up the harbor toward the mouth of the Hudson.[29] The American batteries stationed at Fort George, Red Hook and Governors Island opened fire, but the British returned fire into the city. The ships sailed along the New Jersey shore and continued up the Hudson, sailing past Fort Washington and arriving by nightfall at Tarrytown, the widest part of the Hudson.[30] The goal of the British ships was to cut off American supplies and encourage Loyalist support. The only casualties of the day were six Americans who were killed when their own cannon blew up.[30]
British troops in the type of flat-bottmed boat used for the invasion of Long Island
The next day, July 13, General Howe attempted to open negotiations with the Americans.[31] Howe sent a letter to Washington delivered by Lieutenant Philip Brown, who arrived under the flag of truce. The letter was addressed George Washington, Esq.[31] Brown was met by Joseph Reed, who on Washington's orders had hurried to the waterfront accompanied by Henry Knox and Samuel Webb. Washington asked his officers whether it should be received or not, as it did not recognize his rank as General, and they unanimously said no.[32] Brown was told by Reed that there was no one in the army with that address. On July 16 Howe tried again, this time with the address George Washington, Esq., etc., etc. but it was again declined.[33] The next day Howe sent Captain Nisbet Balfour to ask if Washington would meet with Howe's adjutant face to face, and a meeting was scheduled for July 20.[33] Howe's adjutant was Colonel James Patterson. Patterson told Washington that Howe had come with powers to grant pardons but Washington said, "Those who have committed no fault want no pardon."[33] Patterson departed soon after.[33] Washington's performance during the meeting was praised throughout the United States.[34]
Meanwhile, British ships continued to arrive.[35] On August 1, 45 ships with Generals Henry Clinton and Charles Cornwallis arrived, along with 3,000 troops. By August 12, 3,000 more British troops and another 8,000 Hessians had arrived.[36] At this point the British fleet numbered over 400 ships, including 73 war ships, and 32,000 troops were camped on Staten Island. Faced with this large force, Washington was unsure as to where the British would attack.[37] Both Greene and Reed thought that the British would attack Long Island, but Washington felt that a British attack on Long Island might be a diversion for the main attack on Manhattan. Washington broke his army in half, stationing half of it on Manhattan, and the other half on Long Island; the army on Long Island was commanded by Greene.[37] On August 20 Greene became ill and was forced to move to a house in Manhattan where he rested to recover. John Sullivan was placed in command until Greene was well enough to resume command.[38]
Denyse's Ferry, the first place at which the Hessians and British landed on Long Island August 22, 1776 by A. Brown. This high-point overlooking The Narrows was an American artillery position and bombarded by the British before the invasion, but the actual landing took place further east at Gravesend Bay (around to the left from the perspective of this illustration) where the conditions were more favorable for the small British boats carrying the troops.
Invasion of Long Island
At 5:10 a.m., on August 22, an advance guard of 4,000 British troops, under the command of Clinton and Cornwallis, left Staten Island to land on Long Island.[39] At 8:00 am, all 4,000 troops landed on the shore of Gravesend Bay, unopposed. Colonel Edward Hand's Pennsylvanian riflemen had been stationed on the shore, but they did not oppose the landings and fell back, killing cattle and burning farmhouses on the way.[40] By noon, 15,000 troops had landed on shore along with 40 pieces of artillery. As hundreds of Loyalists came to greet the British troops, Cornwallis pushed on with the advance guard, advancing six miles on to the island and establishing camp at the village of Flatbush; Cornwallis was given orders to advance no further.[40][41]
Washington received word of the landings the same day they occurred, but was informed that the number was 8,000 to 9,000 troops.[42] This convinced Washington that it was the feint he had predicted and therefore he only sent 1,500 more troops to Brooklyn, bringing the total troops on Long Island to 6,000. On August 24, Washington replaced Sullivan with Israel Putnam who commanded the troops on Long Island.[43] Putnam arrived on Long Island the next day along with six battalions. Also that day the British troops on Long Island received 5,000 Hessian reinforcements, bringing their total to 20,000.[44] Although there was little fighting on the days immediately after the landing, some small skirmishes did take place with American marksmen armed with rifles picking off British troops from time to time.[45]
The Battle of Long Island, 27 August 1776
The American plan was that Putnam would direct the defenses from Brooklyn Heights while Sullivan and Stirling and their troops would be stationed on the Guana Heights.[46][47] The heights were up to 150 feet high and blocked the most direct route to Brooklyn Heights.[46][47] Washington believed by stationing men on the heights that heavy casualties could be inflicted on the British before the troops fell back to the main defenses at Brooklyn Heights.[48] There were three main passes through the heights; the Gowanus Road furthest to the west, the Flatbush Road slightly farther to the east, in the center of the American line where it was expected the British would attack, and the Bedford Road farthest to the east. Stirling was responsible to defend the Gowanus Road with 500 men, and Sullivan was to defend the Flatbush and Bedford Roads where there were 1,000 and 800 men respectively.[46] 6,000 troops would remain behind at Brooklyn Heights. There was one lesser-known pass through the heights farther to the east called the Jamaica Pass. This pass was defended by just five militia officers on horses.[49]
On the British side, General Clinton learned of the almost undefended Jamaica Pass from local Loyalists.[50] Clinton drew up a plan and gave it to William Erskine to propose to Howe. Clinton's plan had the main army making a night march and going through the Jamaica Pass to turn the American flank while other troops would keep the Americans busy in front.[51] On August 26, Clinton received word from Howe that the plan would be used, and that Clinton was to command the advance guard of the main army of 10,000 men on the march through the Jamaica Pass. While they made the night march, General James Grant's British troops along with some Hessians, a total of 4,000 men, would attack the Americans in front to distract them from the main army coming on their flank.[51] Howe told Clinton to be ready to move out that night, August 26.[51]
Washington's defeat revealed his deficiencies as a strategist who split his forces, his inexperienced generals who misunderstood the situation, and his raw troops that fled in disorder at the first shots.[52] On the other hand his daring nighttime retreat has been seen by some historians as one of his greatest military feats.[53] Other historians concentrate on the failure of British naval forces to prevent the withdrawal. Washington had no warships, but did use shore batteries, underwater trees and obstacles, fireships that retarded British movements.[54]
Battle
Night march
1776 map of British troop movements and battle locations
At 9:00 p.m. the British moved out.[55] No one, except the commanders—not even the officers—knew of the plan. Clinton led a crack brigade of light infantry with fixed bayonets in front, followed by Cornwallis who had eight battalions and 14 artillery pieces. Cornwallis was, in turn, followed by Howe and Hugh Percy with six battalions, more artillery, and baggage.[55] The column consisted of 10,000 men who stretched out over two miles. Three Loyalist farmers led the column toward the Jamaica Pass. The British had left their campfires burning to deceive the Americans into thinking that nothing was happening.[55] The column headed northeast until it reached what later became the village of New Lots when it headed directly north, toward the Heights.
The column had yet to run into any American troops when they reached Howard's Tavern (also known as Howard's Half-Way House), just a few hundred yards from the Jamaica Pass.[56] The tavern keeper William Howard and his son William Jr. were forced to act as guides to show the British the way to the Rockaway Foot Path, an old Indian trail that skirted the Jamaica Pass to the west (located today in the Cemetery of the Evergreens). Five minutes after leaving the tavern, the five American militia officers stationed at the Pass were captured without a shot fired, as they thought the British were Americans.[57] Clinton interrogated the men and they informed him that they were the only troops guarding the pass. By dawn the British were through the pass and and stopped so the troops were could rest.[57] At 9:00 am, they fired two heavy cannons to signal the Hessian troops below Battle Pass to begin their frontal assault against Sullivan's men deployed on the two hills flanking the pass while Clinton's troops simultaneously flanked the American positions from the east.[57]
The Rockaway Foot Path
Howard's Tavern as it appeared in 1776; it was demolished in 1880
William Howard Jr. describes meeting General Howe:
“It was about 2 o’clock in the morning of the 27th of August that I was awakened by seeing a soldier at the side of my bed. I got up and dressed and went down to the barroom, where I saw my father standing in one corner with three British soldiers before him with muskets and bayonets fixed. The army was then lying in the field in front of the house ...General Howe and another officer were in the barroom. General Howe wore a camlet cloak over his regimentals. After asking for a glass of liquor from the bar, which was given him, he entered into familiar conversation with my father, and among other things said, ‘I must have some one of you to show me over the Rockaway Path around the pass.’
“My father replied, ‘We belong to the other side, General, and can’t serve you against our duty.’ General Howe replied, ‘That is alright; stick to your country, or stick to your principles, but Howard, you are my prisoner and must guide my men over the hill.’ My father made some further objection, but was silenced by the general, who said, ‘You have no alternative. If you refuse I shall shoot you through the head.’”
Opening engagements
The Battle Pass area, also known as Flatbush Pass, is located in modern-day Prospect Park. Lithograph, c.1866
In the early morning hours of August 27, 1776, the first shots of the Battle of Brooklyn were fired near the Red Lion Inn (near present-day 39st. and 4th ave.) when a British scouting party from the diversionary force led by General James Grant encountered American pickets stationed at the Red Lion. According to some accounts the British troops were foraging in a watermelon patch. After an initial exchange of musket fire the British initially retreated then returned with reinforcements, the American troops then fled in up the Gowanus Road toward the Vechte-Cortelyou House. Major Edward Burd who had been in command was captured along with a lieutenant and 15 privates.[58]
Colonel Samuel Holden Parsons a lawyer from Connecticut who had recently secured a commission in the Continental Army, and Colonel Samuel Atlee of Pennsylvania, a veteran of the French and Indian War were stationed further north on the Gowanus Road. The two colonels roused from their sleep from the sound of musket fire managed to intercept the troops fleeing from the British at the Red Lion and form them into a skirmish line. At daybreak the Americans would be reinforced with 400 troops sent by General Sullivan stationed at the Flatbush Pass.
At 3:00 am, Putnam was awakened by a guard and told that the British were attacking through the Gowanus Pass.[59]Putnam lit signals to Washington who was on Manhattan and then rode south to warn Stirling of the attack.[60] Stirling led two regiments of Delaware and Maryland Continentals, a total of 1,600 troops, taking them to establish line to stop the British advance.[59][60] The British and the Americans engaged each other from about 200 yards apart, both sides under cannon fire, and the British twice assaulted Stirling's troops on the high ground, but each time they were repulsed. The Americans, however, were unaware that this was not the main British attack.[61]
The Hessians, in the center under the command of General von Heister, began to bombard the American lines.[62] The Hessian brigades, however, did not attack and Sullivan sent four hundred of his men to reinforce Stirling. Howe fired his signal guns at 9:00 AM and the Hessians began to advance in front while the main army came at Sullivan from the rear.[62] Sullivan left his advance guard to hold off the Hessians while he turned the rest of his force around to fight the British. Heavy casualties mounted up between the Americans and the British and men on both sides fled out of fear.[62] Sullivan attempted to calm his men and tried to lead a retreat. By this point the Hessians had overrun the advance guard on the heights and the American left had completely collapsed.[63] Hand-to-hand fighting followed with the Americans swinging their muskets and rifles like clubs to save their lives. Many of the Americans who surrendered were bayoneted by the Hessians.[64] Sullivan, despite the chaos, managed to evacuate most of his men to Brooklyn Heights though Sullivan himself was captured.[63]
Retreat
The front of the Vechte-Cortelyou House; the Maryland 400 commanded by Lord Stirling charged the house held by over two thousand British troops six times, 256 died in the assaults and over 100 were captured or wounded.
In Battle of Long Island, 1858 by Alonzo Chappel, Stirling leads the attack of the Maryland 400 while the rest of the American troops escape across the marsh and Gowanus Creek
At 9:00 am, Washington arrived from Manhattan.[65] Washington realized that he had been wrong about a feint on Long Island and he ordered more troops to Brooklyn from Manhattan.[65] Washington's location on the battlefield is not known for sure, because accounts differ, but most likely he was at Brooklyn Heights where he could view the battle.[66]
On the American right, to the west, Stirling still held the line against Grant.[66] Stirling held on for four hours, still unaware of the British flanking maneuver, and some of his own troops thought they were winning the day because the British had been unable to take their position. However, by 11:00 am, Grant, reinforced by 2,000 marines, hit Stirling's center and Stirling was attacked on his left by the Hessians.[64][66] Stirling pulled back but British troops were, at this point, coming at him in his rear too. The only escape route left was across a saltmarsh and Gowanus Creek which was 80 yards wide, on the other side of which was Brooklyn Heights.[67]
Stirling ordered all of his troops, except 400 Maryland troops under the command of Major Mordecai Gist, to cross the creek. The 400 Maryland troops attacked the British, trying to buy time for the others to withdraw.[67] Stirling and Gist led the 400 men in six consecutive attacks against the British. After the last assault the remaining troops retreated across the Gowanus Creek. Some of the men who tried to cross the marsh were bogged down in the mud under musket fire and others who could not swim were captured. Stirling was surrounded and, unwilling to surrender to the British, broke through the British lines to von Heister's Hessians and surrendered to them. 256 Maryland troops were killed in the assaults in front of the Old Stone House and over 100 were captured or wounded.[68] Washington, watching from a redoubt on nearby Cobble Hill (intersection of today's Court Street and Atlantic Avenue), was to have said, "Good God, what brave fellows I must this day lose!".[67] [69] Although the troops did not want to stop advancing, Howe ordered all of his troops to halt, against the wishes of many of his officers, who believed that they should push on to Brooklyn Heights. Howe disagreed.[69] Rather than assaulting the entrenched American position, he began more methodical siege operations to penetrate it.[70]
Howe's failure to press the attack, and the reasons for it, have been disputed. He may have wished to avoid the casualties his army suffered when attacking the Continentals under similar circumstances at the Battle of Bunker Hill.[70] He may also, in the European gentleman-officer tradition, have been giving Washington an opportunity to conclude his position was hopeless and surrender. Howe wrote[when?] that it would have been "inconsiderate and even criminal" to attack the surrounded Americans.[71]
Aftermath
Retreat at Long Island by J.C. Armytage (1820-1897) depicting Washington personally directing the retreat across the East River on the night of August 29, 1776
Casualties
At the time, it was by far the largest battle ever fought in North America.[69] If the Royal Navy is included, over 40,000 men took part in the battle. Howe reported his losses as 59 killed, 268 wounded and 31 missing. The Hessian casualties were 5 killed and 26 wounded.[4] The Americans suffered much heavier losses. About 300 had been killed and over 1,000 captured.[3]
Escape to Manhattan
Washington and the army were surrounded on Brooklyn Heights with the East River to their backs.[72] As the day went on, the British began to dig trenches, slowly coming closer and closer to the American defenses. By doing this, the British would not have to cross over open ground to assault the American defenses as they did in Boston the year before.[73] Despite this perilous situation, Washington ordered 1,200 more men from Manhattan to Brooklyn on August 28.[72] The men that came over were two Pennsylvania regiments and Colonel John Glover's regiment from Marblehead, Massachusetts. In command of the Pennsylvania troops was Thomas Mifflin who, after arriving, volunteered to inspect the outer defenses and report back to Washington.[74] In these outer defenses, small skirmishes were still taking place. On the afternoon of August 28, it began to rain and Washington had his cannon bombard the British well into the night.[75]
The Foot of Wall Street And Ferry House - 1746. The Manhattan side of the East River crossing, known then as the Brooklyn Ferry, as it looked in the mid 1700's.[76]
As the rain continued Washington sent a letter instructing General William Heath, who was at Kings Bridge between Manhattan and what is now the Bronx, to send every flat bottomed boat or sloop without delay in case battalions of infantry from New Jersey might come to reinforce their position.[77] At 4:00 p.m., on August 29, Washington held a meeting with his generals. Mifflin advised Washington to retreat to Manhattan while Mifflin and his Pennsylvania Regiments made up the rear guard, holding the line until the rest of the army had withdrawn.[77] The Generals agreed unanimously with Mifflin that retreat was the best option and Washington had orders go out by the evening.[78]
The troops were told that they were to gather up all their ammunition and baggage and prepare for a night attack.[78] By 9:00 p.m., the sick and wounded began to move to the Brooklyn Ferry in preparation for being evacuated. At 11:00 p.m. Glover and his Massachusetts troops, who were sailors and fishermen, began to evacuate the troops.[79]
Washington evacuating Army
175th Anniversary Issue of 1951. Accurate depiction of Fulton Ferry House at right. Flat bottom ferry boats in East River are depicted in background.[80][81]
As more troops were evacuated, more troops were ordered to withdraw from the lines and march to the ferry landing. Wagon wheels were muffled, and men were forbidden to talk.[79] Mifflin's rear guard was tending campfires to deceive the British and convince them that nothing was going on. At 4:00 am, on August 30, Mifflin was informed that it was his unit's turn to evacuate.[82] Mifflin told the man who had been sent to order him to leave, Major Alexander Scammell, that he must be mistaken, but Scammell insisted that he was not and Mifflin ordered his troops to move out. When Mifflin's troops were within a half mile of the ferry landing Washington rode up and demanded to know why they were not at their defenses. Edward Hand, who was leading the troops, tried to explain what had happened, but Mifflin arrived shortly.[83] Washington exclaimed "Good God! General Mifflin, I am afraid you have ruined us!" Mifflin explained that he had been told that it was his turn to evacuate by Scammell; Washington told him it had been a mistake. Mifflin then led his troops back to the outer defenses.[83]
Artillery, supplies, and troops were all being evacuated across the river at this time but it was not going as fast as Washington had anticipated and daybreak soon came.[83] A fog settled in and concealed the evacuation from the British. British patrols noticed that there did not seem to be any American pickets and thus began to search the area. While they were doing this Washington, the last man left, stepped onto the last boat.[73] At 7:00 am, the last American troops landed in Manhattan.[84] All 9,000 troops had been evacuated without a single life lost.[84]
Conclusion of the campaign
The British fleet in New York Harbor just after the battle.
The British were stunned to find that Washington and the army had escaped.[84] The next day, August 30, the British troops occupied the American fortifications. When news of the battle reached London, it caused many festivities to take place.[85] Bells were rung across the city, candles were lit in windows and King George III gave General Howe the Order of the Bath.[86]
General Howe remained inactive for the next half month, not attacking until September 15 when he landed a force at Kip's Bay.[87] The British quickly occupied the city. On September 21, a fire of uncertain origin destroyed a quarter of New York City. In the immediate aftermath of the fire Nathan Hale was executed for spying. Although the Continentals were able to mount a victory at Harlem Heights in mid-September, Howe defeated Washington in battle again at White Plains and then again at Fort Washington.[88] Because of these defeats, Washington and the army retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.
Battle at West Point
One of the Final Civil War Battles
During the final weeks of the Civil War, Union
General James Wilson swept west across
Alabama for the key bridges over the
Chattahoochee RIver at Columbus and West
Point, Georgia.
Dividing his army into two columns, Wilson
moved with the main body for the important
industrial city of Columbus, while Colonel
Oscar H. LaGrange moved with a second
force to take the important bridge at West
Point, a community on the Alabama line north
of Columbus.
With a command of around 3,750 men from
the 2nd and 4th Indiana, 1st Wisconsin and
7th Kentucky Cavalries and the 18th Indiana
Battery, a unit of light artillery, LaGrange
moved north from Auburn. He reached West
Point on the morning of April 16, 1865, an
Easter Sunday.
In anticipation of the attack, Confederate
Brigadier General Robert C. Tyler had taken
up a position in a square earthwork fort on a
high hill overlooking the town with a force of
between 120-265 men (sources vary).
Named in the general's honor, Fort Tyler was
armed with three pieces of artillery, two field
guns and a 32-pounder. Other Confederate
troops were positioned on the heights east of
the Chattahoochee to protect the bridge. Most
of Tyler's force was made up of soldiers on
medical leave, militia and volunteers.
Assessing the situation, LaGrange moved
with the 4th Indiana around the fort and took
the Chattahoochee River bridge, while the
2nd Indiana, 1st Wisconsin and 7th Kentucky
were ordered to invest the fort. The 18th
Indiana Battery unlimbered on a nearby hill
and opened fire on Fort Tyler.
Tyler returned fire with his artillery, sending
32-pound cannonballs crashing toward the
bridge. One of these killed LaGrange's horse
and stunned the colonel. A Union cannon
shot, meanwhile, cut the halyard on the flag-
staff in Fort Tyler. A 17-year-old sergeant
named Charlie McNeill climbed the pole,
nailed the flag back in place and waved a
salute to the Union gunners before safely
sliding back down the pole to a roar of Rebel
yells from Tyler and his men.
Fort Tyler held out defiantly for hours. One by
one its cannon were dismounted by Union
fire and the Federal dismounted cavalrymen
closed in on the ramparts. Realizing that the
tide of the battle was turning against him,
General Tyler fully exposed himself before
the wall of the fort walking in clear view of the
enemy soldiers.
He was quickly shot down and according to
one eyewitness, never moved again. Tyler
was the last general of either side killed
during the war and kept his promise that he
would either win the battle or die in the effort.
During the final weeks of the Civil War, Union
General James Wilson swept west across
Alabama for the key bridges over the
Chattahoochee RIver at Columbus and West
Point, Georgia.
Dividing his army into two columns, Wilson
moved with the main body for the important
industrial city of Columbus, while Colonel
Oscar H. LaGrange moved with a second
force to take the important bridge at West
Point, a community on the Alabama line north
of Columbus.
With a command of around 3,750 men from
the 2nd and 4th Indiana, 1st Wisconsin and
7th Kentucky Cavalries and the 18th Indiana
Battery, a unit of light artillery, LaGrange
moved north from Auburn. He reached West
Point on the morning of April 16, 1865, an
Easter Sunday.
In anticipation of the attack, Confederate
Brigadier General Robert C. Tyler had taken
up a position in a square earthwork fort on a
high hill overlooking the town with a force of
between 120-265 men (sources vary).
Named in the general's honor, Fort Tyler was
armed with three pieces of artillery, two field
guns and a 32-pounder. Other Confederate
troops were positioned on the heights east of
the Chattahoochee to protect the bridge. Most
of Tyler's force was made up of soldiers on
medical leave, militia and volunteers.
Assessing the situation, LaGrange moved
with the 4th Indiana around the fort and took
the Chattahoochee River bridge, while the
2nd Indiana, 1st Wisconsin and 7th Kentucky
were ordered to invest the fort. The 18th
Indiana Battery unlimbered on a nearby hill
and opened fire on Fort Tyler.
Tyler returned fire with his artillery, sending
32-pound cannonballs crashing toward the
bridge. One of these killed LaGrange's horse
and stunned the colonel. A Union cannon
shot, meanwhile, cut the halyard on the flag-
staff in Fort Tyler. A 17-year-old sergeant
named Charlie McNeill climbed the pole,
nailed the flag back in place and waved a
salute to the Union gunners before safely
sliding back down the pole to a roar of Rebel
yells from Tyler and his men.
Fort Tyler held out defiantly for hours. One by
one its cannon were dismounted by Union
fire and the Federal dismounted cavalrymen
closed in on the ramparts. Realizing that the
tide of the battle was turning against him,
General Tyler fully exposed himself before
the wall of the fort walking in clear view of the
enemy soldiers.
He was quickly shot down and according to
one eyewitness, never moved again. Tyler
was the last general of either side killed
during the war and kept his promise that he
would either win the battle or die in the effort.
Battle of Trenton
Battle: Trenton
War: American Revolution
Date: 25th December 1776
Place: Trenton, New Jersey on the Delaware River
Combatants: Americans against Hessians and British troops
Generals: General George Washington against Colonel Rahl.
General George Washington crossing the Delaware at the
Battle of Trenton on Christmas night 1776 by Emmanuel Leutze
Click here or on image to buy a print
Size of the armies:
2,400 American troops with 18 guns. 1,400 Hessians with 6 light guns.
Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British 16th Ligh Dragoons wore red coats and leather crested helmets. The German infantry wore blue coats and retained the Prussian style grenadier mitre with brass front plate. The Americans dressed as best they could. Increasingly as the war progressed regular infantry regiments of the Continental Army wore blue uniform coats but the militia continued in rough clothing. Both sides were armed with muskets and guns. The Pennsylvania regiments carried long, small calibre, rifled weapons.
The US 8th Continental Regiment - fought in the siege of Boston,
Lake Champlain, Trenton, Princeton, Saratoga, Monmouth and Yorktown
Buy the Uniforms of the Revolution CD
Giclee maps available to buy on-line including the Battle of Waterloo, Frederick the Great and the American Civil War
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Uniforms of the American Revolution - CD buy on-line
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Winner: The battle was a resounding physical and moral victory for Washington and his American troops.
British Regiments:
Only a troop of 16th Light Dragoons who left the town at the onset of the fighting.
Account:
After being driven out of New York by the British and forced to retreat to the West bank of the Delaware during the late summer of 1776, the American cause was at a low ebb. In the harsh winter Washington was faced with the annual crisis of the expiry of the Continental Army’s period of enlistment. He resolved to attack the Hessian position at Trenton on the extreme southern end of the over extended British line along the Delaware, before his army dispersed.
Washington’s plan was to cross the Delaware at three points with a force commanded by Lt Col Cadwallader with a Rhode Island regiment, some Pennsylvanians, Delaware militia and two guns, a second force under Brigadier Ewing of militia and the third commanded by himself which would cross the river above Trenton and attack the Hessian garrison in the town. Washington had as his subordinates, Major Generals Nathaniel Greene and John Sullivan.
Washington had some 2,400 men from Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York.
The force paraded in the afternoon and set off for the Delaware where they embarked in a flotilla of the characteristic Delaware river boats.
It was a cold dark night and the river was running with flowing ice. At about 11pm a heavy snow and sleet storm broke. Washington’s force did not reach the east bank until around 3am. His soldiers were badly clothed and many did not have shoes.
Washington’s men then marched to Trenton, some of the men leaving traces of blood on the snow.
The German garrison comprised the regiments of Rahl, Knyphausen and Lossberg, with Hessian jagers and a troop of the British 16th Light Dragoons.
The Hessian commander Colonel Rahl had been ordered to construct defence works around the town but had not troubled to do so. On the night before the attack Rahl was at dinner when he was brought information that the Americans were approaching. He ignored the message which was found in his pocket after his death.
Battle of Trenton
The main American force under Washington entered Trenton from the North-West. Sullivan marched around the town and attacked from the South. The remainder took a position to the North East cutting off the Hessians’ retreat.
The surrender to General George Washington of the dying Hessian commander, Colonel Rahl, at the Battle of Trenton
One of the American artillery sections was commanded by Captain Alexander Hamilton. Captain William Washington and Lieutenant James Monroe were wounded in the battle, the only American officer casualties.
Battle in the Streets of Trenton
The Hessians attempted to form in the town but were under artillery fire and attack from front and rear. The Americans occupied the houses and shot down the German gunners and foot soldiers during which Colonel Rahl was fatally wounded. Rahl’s troops retreated to an orchard in the South East of the town where they surrendered.
Ewing and Cadwallader failed to make the river crossing and took no part in the attack.
Casualties: The Americans suffered 4 wounded casualties. It is said that in addition two American soldiers froze to death. The Hessians suffered 20 killed and around 100 wounded. 1,000 were captured.
General Washington leading the attack at the Battle of Trenton
Follow-up:
The effect of the battle of Trenton was out of all proportion to the numbers involved and the casualties. The American effort across the colonies was galvanized and the psychological dominance achieved by the British in the preceding year overturned. Howe was stunned that a strong German contingent could be surprised in such a manner and put up so little resistance. Washington’s constant problem was to maintain the enthusiasm of his army for the war, particularly with the system of one year recruitment and Trenton proved a much needed encouragement.
Tradition:
Washington’s army crossing the Delaware in the freezing conditions has become an important national image for the United States as can be seen in Emmanuel Leutze’s picture.
Present at the battle were: two other future presidents James Madison and James Monroe, the future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall, Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton.
General Washington accepts the surrender of Colonel Rahl's Hessian troops.
References:
History of the British Army by Sir John Fortescue
The War of the Revolution by Christopher Ward
War: American Revolution
Date: 25th December 1776
Place: Trenton, New Jersey on the Delaware River
Combatants: Americans against Hessians and British troops
Generals: General George Washington against Colonel Rahl.
General George Washington crossing the Delaware at the
Battle of Trenton on Christmas night 1776 by Emmanuel Leutze
Click here or on image to buy a print
Size of the armies:
2,400 American troops with 18 guns. 1,400 Hessians with 6 light guns.
Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British 16th Ligh Dragoons wore red coats and leather crested helmets. The German infantry wore blue coats and retained the Prussian style grenadier mitre with brass front plate. The Americans dressed as best they could. Increasingly as the war progressed regular infantry regiments of the Continental Army wore blue uniform coats but the militia continued in rough clothing. Both sides were armed with muskets and guns. The Pennsylvania regiments carried long, small calibre, rifled weapons.
The US 8th Continental Regiment - fought in the siege of Boston,
Lake Champlain, Trenton, Princeton, Saratoga, Monmouth and Yorktown
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Winner: The battle was a resounding physical and moral victory for Washington and his American troops.
British Regiments:
Only a troop of 16th Light Dragoons who left the town at the onset of the fighting.
Account:
After being driven out of New York by the British and forced to retreat to the West bank of the Delaware during the late summer of 1776, the American cause was at a low ebb. In the harsh winter Washington was faced with the annual crisis of the expiry of the Continental Army’s period of enlistment. He resolved to attack the Hessian position at Trenton on the extreme southern end of the over extended British line along the Delaware, before his army dispersed.
Washington’s plan was to cross the Delaware at three points with a force commanded by Lt Col Cadwallader with a Rhode Island regiment, some Pennsylvanians, Delaware militia and two guns, a second force under Brigadier Ewing of militia and the third commanded by himself which would cross the river above Trenton and attack the Hessian garrison in the town. Washington had as his subordinates, Major Generals Nathaniel Greene and John Sullivan.
Washington had some 2,400 men from Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York.
The force paraded in the afternoon and set off for the Delaware where they embarked in a flotilla of the characteristic Delaware river boats.
It was a cold dark night and the river was running with flowing ice. At about 11pm a heavy snow and sleet storm broke. Washington’s force did not reach the east bank until around 3am. His soldiers were badly clothed and many did not have shoes.
Washington’s men then marched to Trenton, some of the men leaving traces of blood on the snow.
The German garrison comprised the regiments of Rahl, Knyphausen and Lossberg, with Hessian jagers and a troop of the British 16th Light Dragoons.
The Hessian commander Colonel Rahl had been ordered to construct defence works around the town but had not troubled to do so. On the night before the attack Rahl was at dinner when he was brought information that the Americans were approaching. He ignored the message which was found in his pocket after his death.
Battle of Trenton
The main American force under Washington entered Trenton from the North-West. Sullivan marched around the town and attacked from the South. The remainder took a position to the North East cutting off the Hessians’ retreat.
The surrender to General George Washington of the dying Hessian commander, Colonel Rahl, at the Battle of Trenton
One of the American artillery sections was commanded by Captain Alexander Hamilton. Captain William Washington and Lieutenant James Monroe were wounded in the battle, the only American officer casualties.
Battle in the Streets of Trenton
The Hessians attempted to form in the town but were under artillery fire and attack from front and rear. The Americans occupied the houses and shot down the German gunners and foot soldiers during which Colonel Rahl was fatally wounded. Rahl’s troops retreated to an orchard in the South East of the town where they surrendered.
Ewing and Cadwallader failed to make the river crossing and took no part in the attack.
Casualties: The Americans suffered 4 wounded casualties. It is said that in addition two American soldiers froze to death. The Hessians suffered 20 killed and around 100 wounded. 1,000 were captured.
General Washington leading the attack at the Battle of Trenton
Follow-up:
The effect of the battle of Trenton was out of all proportion to the numbers involved and the casualties. The American effort across the colonies was galvanized and the psychological dominance achieved by the British in the preceding year overturned. Howe was stunned that a strong German contingent could be surprised in such a manner and put up so little resistance. Washington’s constant problem was to maintain the enthusiasm of his army for the war, particularly with the system of one year recruitment and Trenton proved a much needed encouragement.
Tradition:
Washington’s army crossing the Delaware in the freezing conditions has become an important national image for the United States as can be seen in Emmanuel Leutze’s picture.
Present at the battle were: two other future presidents James Madison and James Monroe, the future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall, Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton.
General Washington accepts the surrender of Colonel Rahl's Hessian troops.
References:
History of the British Army by Sir John Fortescue
The War of the Revolution by Christopher Ward
Fort Ticoderoga
The 1777 Siege of Fort Ticonderoga occurred between 2 and 6 July 1777 at Fort Ticonderoga, near the southern end of Lake Champlain in the state of New York. Lieutenant General John Burgoyne's 8,000-man army occupied high ground above the fort, and nearly surrounded the defences. These movements precipitated the occupying Continental Army, an under-strength force of 3,000 under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, to withdraw from Ticonderoga and the surrounding defences. Some gunfire was exchanged, and there were some casualties, but there was no formal siege and no pitched battle. Burgoyne's army occupied Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Independence without opposition on 6 July, and advance units pursued the retreating Americans.
The uncontested surrender of Ticonderoga caused an uproar in the American public and in its military circles, as Ticonderoga was widely believed to be virtually impregnable, and a vital point of defence. General St. Clair and his superior, General Philip Schuyler, were vilified by Congress. Both were eventually exonerated in courts martial, but their careers were adversely affected. Schuyler had already lost his command to Horatio Gates by the time of the court martial, and St. Clair held no more field commands for the remainder of the war.
Contents
[hide] 1 Background 1.1 British forces
1.2 American defences
1.3 Sugar Loaf
2 British advance
3 American retreat
4 Aftermath
5 Political and public outcry
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background
Main article: Saratoga campaign
In September 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War, the American Continental Army embarked on an invasion of Quebec. The invasion ended in disaster in July 1776, with the army chased back to Fort Ticonderoga by a large British army that arrived in Quebec in May 1776. A small Continental Navy fleet on Lake Champlain was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island. The delay required by the British to build their fleet on Lake Champlain caused General Guy Carleton to hold off on attempting an assault on Ticonderoga in 1776. Although his advance forces came within three miles of Ticonderoga, the lateness of the season and the difficulty of maintaining supply lines along the lake in winter caused him to withdraw his forces back into Quebec.[7]
British forces
General John Burgoyne, portrait by Joshua Reynolds
General John Burgoyne arrived in Quebec in May 1777 and prepared to lead the British forces assembled there south with the aim of gaining control of Ticonderoga and the Hudson River valley, dividing the rebellious provinces.[8] His British Army troops consisted of the 9th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 47th, 53rd and 62nd regiments, along with the flank companies of other regiments left as a garrison in Quebec. The light infantry and flank companies formed the army's advance force, and were commanded by Brigadier General Simon Fraser. The remaining regulars, under the leadership of Major General William Phillips, formed the right wing of the army, while the left was composed of Hessians under the command of Baron Riedesel. His forces consisted of the Rhetz, Riedesel, Specht, Barner, and Hesse-Hanau regiments, along with one regiment of grenadiers and another of horseless dragoons.[9] Most of these forces had arrived in 1776, and many participated in the campaign that drove the American army out of Quebec.[10]
The total size of Burgoyne's regular army was about 7,000.[2] In addition to the regulars, there were about 800 Indians, and a relatively small number of Canadiens and Loyalists, who acted primarily as scouts and screening reconnaissance.[3] The army was also accompanied by more than 1,000 civilians, including a pregnant woman, and Baroness Riedesel with her three small children. Including these non-military personnel, the total number of people in Burgoyne's army was more than 10,000.[11]
Burgoyne and General Carleton reviewed the troops at Fort Saint-Jean, near the northern end of Lake Champlain, on 14 June. By 21 June, the armada carrying the army was on the lake, and they had arrived at the unoccupied Fort Crown Point by 30 June.[12] The Indians and other elements of the advance force laid down such an effective screen that the American defenders at Ticonderoga were unaware of either the exact location or strength of the force moving along the lake.[13] While en route, Burgoyne authored a proclamation to the Americans, written in the turgid, pompous style for which he was well-known, and frequently criticized and parodied.[14]
American defences
General Arthur St. Clair, portrait by Charles Willson Peale
American forces had occupied the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point since they captured them in May 1775 from a small garrison. In 1776 and 1777, they undertook significant efforts to improve the defences surrounding Ticonderoga. Fort Independence was established on Mount Independence to the east, and Mount Hope to the northwest of Ticonderoga was also fortified. A pontoon bridge was constructed across the lake near the mouth of the La Chute River to facilitate communication between Ticonderoga and Independence.[15]
Command at Ticonderoga went through a variety of changes early in 1777. Until 1777, General Philip Schuyler had headed the Continental Army's Northern Department, with General Horatio Gates in charge of Ticonderoga. In March 1777 the Continental Congress gave command of the whole department to Gates. Schuyler protested this action, which Congress reversed in May, at which point Gates, no longer willing to serve under Schuyler, left for Philadelphia. Command of the fort was then given to General Arthur St. Clair, who arrived only three weeks before Burgoyne's army.[16]
The entire complex was manned by several under-strength regiments of the Continental Army and militia units from New York and nearby states. A war council held by Generals St. Clair and Schuyler on 20 June concluded that "the number of troops now at this post, which are under 2,500 effectives, rank and file, are greatly inadequate to the defense", and that "it is prudent to provide for a retreat".[17] Consequently, plans were made for retreat along two routes. The first was by water to Skenesboro, the southermost navigable point on the lake. The second was overland by a rough road leading east toward Hubbardton in the New Hampshire Grants (present-day Vermont).[18]
Sugar Loaf
A height called Sugar Loaf (now known as Mount Defiance) overlooked both Ticonderoga and Independence, and large cannons on that height would make the fort impossible to defend. This tactical problem had been pointed out by John Trumbull when Gates was in command.[19] It was believed to be impossible for the British to place cannons on the heights, even though Trumbull, Anthony Wayne, and an injured Benedict Arnold climbed to the top and noted that gun carriages could probably be dragged up.[20]
The defence, or lack thereof, of Sugar Loaf was complicated by the widespread perception that Fort Ticonderoga, with a reputation as the "Gibraltar of the North", had to be held.[16] Neither abandoning the fort nor garrisoning it with a small force (sufficient to respond to a feint but not to an attack in strength) was viewed as a politically viable option. Defending the fort and the associated outer works would require all the troops currently there, leaving none to defend Sugar Loaf.[21] Furthermore, George Washington and the Congress were of the opinion that Burgoyne, who was known to be in Quebec, was more likely to strike from the south, moving his troops by sea to New York City.[22]
Following the war council of 20 June, Schuyler ordered St. Clair to hold out as long as he could, and to avoid having his avenues of retreat cut off. Schuyler took command of a reserve force of 700 at Albany, and Washington ordered four regiments to be held in readiness at Peekskill, further down the Hudson River.[23]
British advance
Detail of a 1780 map showing the Ticonderoga area, with battle sites marked
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga, 2–6 July 1777
On 1 July, General St. Clair was still unaware of the full strength of Burgoyne's army, which lay just 4 miles (6.4 km) away. Burgoyne had deployed Fraser's advance force and right column on the west side of the lake, hoping to cut off the defences at Mount Hope. Riedesel and the German column were deployed on the east side of the lake, where their objective was Mount Independence and the road to Hubbardton. Burgoyne gave the order to advance on 2 July.[24]
On the morning of 2 July, St. Clair decided to withdraw the men occupying the defence post at Mount Hope, which was exposed and subject to capture. The detachment there set fire to the works and retreated to the old French lines (so called because they were the site of the French defence in the 1758 Battle of Carillon), getting away not long before the arrival of Burgoyne's advance guard. That afternoon, a company of British soldiers and Indians came toward those lines, but not near enough to do significant damage, and opened fire. St. Clair ordered his men to hold their fire until the enemy was closer, but James Wilkinson fired at a British soldier, spurring the untrained defenders to follow suit. The soldier Wilkinson fired at fell, and the British troops fled. When the man was captured, it turned out he was uninjured, and that he had fallen down because he was drunk. Through the deception of placing him with a man posing as a captured Loyalist, St. Clair learned the nature of the opposing forces.[25]
Fraser's advance forces occupied Mount Hope on 3 July. Burgoyne ordered some of the scouts and Indians over to the east side of the lake for reconnaissance ahead of the German column, and brought some of the Germans over to the west side. Some of the British camp was placed close enough to the American lines that they were harassed by gunfire. This did not prevent the British from making repairs to the bridges on the portage road between Ticonderoga and Lake George.[26]
British engineers discovered the strategic position of Sugar Loaf, and realized that the American withdrawal from Mount Hope gave them access to it.[25] Starting on 2 July, they began clearing and building gun emplacements on top of that height, working carefully to avoid notice by the Americans. They spent several days drawing some of their larger guns up the slope. Burgoyne's objective was to spring the trap only when Riedesel's Germans were in position to cut off the American retreat.[27]
American retreat
On 4 July, the Americans held a quiet celebration with some toasts to commemorate the previous year's Declaration of Independence.[28] That night the British lost their element of surprise when some Indians lit fires on Sugar Loaf, alerting the Americans to their presence there.[29] On the morning of 5 July, St. Clair held a war council in which the decision was made to retreat. Since their position was completely exposed, they delayed departure until nightfall, when their movements would be concealed.[28] In a conversation with one of his quartermasters, St. Clair observed that he could "save his character and lose the army" by holding the fort, or "save the army and lose his character" if he retreated, giving a clear indication of the political reaction he was expecting to his decision.[29]
All possible armaments, as well as invalids, camp followers, and supplies were loaded onto a fleet of more than 200 boats that began to move up the lake toward Skenesboro, accompanied by Colonel Pierse Long's regiment.[30] Owing to a shortage of boats, four invalids were left behind, as were the very largest cannons and a variety of supplies—everything from tents to cattle.[31] The rest of the army crossed to Mount Independence and headed down the Hubbardton road, which Riedesel's forces had not yet reached. A handful of men were left at the pontoon bridge with loaded cannons to fire on British attempts to cross it, but they were drunk when the British arrived the next morning.[32]
The British occupied the forts without firing a shot, and detachments from Fraser's and Riedesel's troops set out in pursuit of the retreating Americans on the Hubbardton road, while Burgoyne hurried some of his troops up the lake toward Skenesboro.[33]
Aftermath
For battles that occurred during the American retreat, see Battle of Fort Anne and Battle of Hubbardton.
At least seven Americans were killed and 11 wounded in skirmishing prior to the American retreat.[4] British casualties were not tallied, but at least five were killed in skirmishes.[6]
The Americans made good time on the Hubbardton road. Most of the force reached Castleton—a march of 30 miles (50 km)—on the evening of 6 July.[34] The British pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton when they caught up with the rear guard on the morning of 7 July, but this enabled the main American body to escape, eventually joining forces with Schuyler at Fort Edward.[35] The smaller American force that had fled by boat to Skenesboro fought off Burgoyne's advance force in the Battle of Fort Anne, but was forced to abandon equipment and many sick and wounded in skirmishing at Skenesboro.[36]
The confrontation at Ticonderoga did not substantially slow Burgoyne's advance, but he was forced to leave a garrison of more than 900 men in the Ticonderoga area, and wait until 11 July for the dispersed elements of his army to regroup at Skenesboro.[37] He then encountered delays in traveling the heavily wooded road between Skenesboro and Fort Edward, which General Schuyler's forces had effectively ruined by felling trees across it and destroying all its bridges in the swampy terrain.[38] Burgoyne's campaign ultimately failed and he was forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga.[39] General Gates reported to Governor George Clinton on 20 November that Ticonderoga and Independence had been abandoned and burned by the retreating British.[40]
Political and public outcry
King George III, detail of portrait by Allan Ramsay
The political and public outcry after the withdrawal was significant. The Congress was appalled, and criticized both Schuyler and St. Clair for the loss. John Adams wrote, "I think we shall never be able to defend a post until we shoot a general", and George Washington said it was "an event of chagrin and surprise, not apprehended nor within the compass of my reasoning".[35] Rumors circulated that St. Clair and Schuyler were traitors who had taken bribes in exchange for the retreat.[41]
Schuyler was eventually removed as commander of the Northern Department, replaced by General Gates; the fall of Ticonderoga was among the reasons cited.[42] St. Clair was removed from his command and sent to headquarters for an inquiry. He maintained that his conduct had been honorable, and demanded a review by court martial.[43] The court martial was not held until September 1778 due to political intrigues against Washington; St. Clair was completely exonerated,[44] although he was never given another field command.[45] Schuyler was also cleared of any wrongdoing by a court martial.[44]
The news made headlines in Europe. King George is reported to have burst into the chambers of the scantily clad Queen, exclaiming, "I have beat them! I have beat all the Americans!"[41] The French and Spanish courts were less happy with the news, as they had been supporting the Americans, allowing them to use their ports, and engaging in trade with them. The action emboldened the British to demand that France and Spain close their ports to the Americans; this demand was rejected, heightening tensions between the European powers.[46]
The uncontested surrender of Ticonderoga caused an uproar in the American public and in its military circles, as Ticonderoga was widely believed to be virtually impregnable, and a vital point of defence. General St. Clair and his superior, General Philip Schuyler, were vilified by Congress. Both were eventually exonerated in courts martial, but their careers were adversely affected. Schuyler had already lost his command to Horatio Gates by the time of the court martial, and St. Clair held no more field commands for the remainder of the war.
Contents
[hide] 1 Background 1.1 British forces
1.2 American defences
1.3 Sugar Loaf
2 British advance
3 American retreat
4 Aftermath
5 Political and public outcry
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background
Main article: Saratoga campaign
In September 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War, the American Continental Army embarked on an invasion of Quebec. The invasion ended in disaster in July 1776, with the army chased back to Fort Ticonderoga by a large British army that arrived in Quebec in May 1776. A small Continental Navy fleet on Lake Champlain was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island. The delay required by the British to build their fleet on Lake Champlain caused General Guy Carleton to hold off on attempting an assault on Ticonderoga in 1776. Although his advance forces came within three miles of Ticonderoga, the lateness of the season and the difficulty of maintaining supply lines along the lake in winter caused him to withdraw his forces back into Quebec.[7]
British forces
General John Burgoyne, portrait by Joshua Reynolds
General John Burgoyne arrived in Quebec in May 1777 and prepared to lead the British forces assembled there south with the aim of gaining control of Ticonderoga and the Hudson River valley, dividing the rebellious provinces.[8] His British Army troops consisted of the 9th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 47th, 53rd and 62nd regiments, along with the flank companies of other regiments left as a garrison in Quebec. The light infantry and flank companies formed the army's advance force, and were commanded by Brigadier General Simon Fraser. The remaining regulars, under the leadership of Major General William Phillips, formed the right wing of the army, while the left was composed of Hessians under the command of Baron Riedesel. His forces consisted of the Rhetz, Riedesel, Specht, Barner, and Hesse-Hanau regiments, along with one regiment of grenadiers and another of horseless dragoons.[9] Most of these forces had arrived in 1776, and many participated in the campaign that drove the American army out of Quebec.[10]
The total size of Burgoyne's regular army was about 7,000.[2] In addition to the regulars, there were about 800 Indians, and a relatively small number of Canadiens and Loyalists, who acted primarily as scouts and screening reconnaissance.[3] The army was also accompanied by more than 1,000 civilians, including a pregnant woman, and Baroness Riedesel with her three small children. Including these non-military personnel, the total number of people in Burgoyne's army was more than 10,000.[11]
Burgoyne and General Carleton reviewed the troops at Fort Saint-Jean, near the northern end of Lake Champlain, on 14 June. By 21 June, the armada carrying the army was on the lake, and they had arrived at the unoccupied Fort Crown Point by 30 June.[12] The Indians and other elements of the advance force laid down such an effective screen that the American defenders at Ticonderoga were unaware of either the exact location or strength of the force moving along the lake.[13] While en route, Burgoyne authored a proclamation to the Americans, written in the turgid, pompous style for which he was well-known, and frequently criticized and parodied.[14]
American defences
General Arthur St. Clair, portrait by Charles Willson Peale
American forces had occupied the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point since they captured them in May 1775 from a small garrison. In 1776 and 1777, they undertook significant efforts to improve the defences surrounding Ticonderoga. Fort Independence was established on Mount Independence to the east, and Mount Hope to the northwest of Ticonderoga was also fortified. A pontoon bridge was constructed across the lake near the mouth of the La Chute River to facilitate communication between Ticonderoga and Independence.[15]
Command at Ticonderoga went through a variety of changes early in 1777. Until 1777, General Philip Schuyler had headed the Continental Army's Northern Department, with General Horatio Gates in charge of Ticonderoga. In March 1777 the Continental Congress gave command of the whole department to Gates. Schuyler protested this action, which Congress reversed in May, at which point Gates, no longer willing to serve under Schuyler, left for Philadelphia. Command of the fort was then given to General Arthur St. Clair, who arrived only three weeks before Burgoyne's army.[16]
The entire complex was manned by several under-strength regiments of the Continental Army and militia units from New York and nearby states. A war council held by Generals St. Clair and Schuyler on 20 June concluded that "the number of troops now at this post, which are under 2,500 effectives, rank and file, are greatly inadequate to the defense", and that "it is prudent to provide for a retreat".[17] Consequently, plans were made for retreat along two routes. The first was by water to Skenesboro, the southermost navigable point on the lake. The second was overland by a rough road leading east toward Hubbardton in the New Hampshire Grants (present-day Vermont).[18]
Sugar Loaf
A height called Sugar Loaf (now known as Mount Defiance) overlooked both Ticonderoga and Independence, and large cannons on that height would make the fort impossible to defend. This tactical problem had been pointed out by John Trumbull when Gates was in command.[19] It was believed to be impossible for the British to place cannons on the heights, even though Trumbull, Anthony Wayne, and an injured Benedict Arnold climbed to the top and noted that gun carriages could probably be dragged up.[20]
The defence, or lack thereof, of Sugar Loaf was complicated by the widespread perception that Fort Ticonderoga, with a reputation as the "Gibraltar of the North", had to be held.[16] Neither abandoning the fort nor garrisoning it with a small force (sufficient to respond to a feint but not to an attack in strength) was viewed as a politically viable option. Defending the fort and the associated outer works would require all the troops currently there, leaving none to defend Sugar Loaf.[21] Furthermore, George Washington and the Congress were of the opinion that Burgoyne, who was known to be in Quebec, was more likely to strike from the south, moving his troops by sea to New York City.[22]
Following the war council of 20 June, Schuyler ordered St. Clair to hold out as long as he could, and to avoid having his avenues of retreat cut off. Schuyler took command of a reserve force of 700 at Albany, and Washington ordered four regiments to be held in readiness at Peekskill, further down the Hudson River.[23]
British advance
Detail of a 1780 map showing the Ticonderoga area, with battle sites marked
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga, 2–6 July 1777
On 1 July, General St. Clair was still unaware of the full strength of Burgoyne's army, which lay just 4 miles (6.4 km) away. Burgoyne had deployed Fraser's advance force and right column on the west side of the lake, hoping to cut off the defences at Mount Hope. Riedesel and the German column were deployed on the east side of the lake, where their objective was Mount Independence and the road to Hubbardton. Burgoyne gave the order to advance on 2 July.[24]
On the morning of 2 July, St. Clair decided to withdraw the men occupying the defence post at Mount Hope, which was exposed and subject to capture. The detachment there set fire to the works and retreated to the old French lines (so called because they were the site of the French defence in the 1758 Battle of Carillon), getting away not long before the arrival of Burgoyne's advance guard. That afternoon, a company of British soldiers and Indians came toward those lines, but not near enough to do significant damage, and opened fire. St. Clair ordered his men to hold their fire until the enemy was closer, but James Wilkinson fired at a British soldier, spurring the untrained defenders to follow suit. The soldier Wilkinson fired at fell, and the British troops fled. When the man was captured, it turned out he was uninjured, and that he had fallen down because he was drunk. Through the deception of placing him with a man posing as a captured Loyalist, St. Clair learned the nature of the opposing forces.[25]
Fraser's advance forces occupied Mount Hope on 3 July. Burgoyne ordered some of the scouts and Indians over to the east side of the lake for reconnaissance ahead of the German column, and brought some of the Germans over to the west side. Some of the British camp was placed close enough to the American lines that they were harassed by gunfire. This did not prevent the British from making repairs to the bridges on the portage road between Ticonderoga and Lake George.[26]
British engineers discovered the strategic position of Sugar Loaf, and realized that the American withdrawal from Mount Hope gave them access to it.[25] Starting on 2 July, they began clearing and building gun emplacements on top of that height, working carefully to avoid notice by the Americans. They spent several days drawing some of their larger guns up the slope. Burgoyne's objective was to spring the trap only when Riedesel's Germans were in position to cut off the American retreat.[27]
American retreat
On 4 July, the Americans held a quiet celebration with some toasts to commemorate the previous year's Declaration of Independence.[28] That night the British lost their element of surprise when some Indians lit fires on Sugar Loaf, alerting the Americans to their presence there.[29] On the morning of 5 July, St. Clair held a war council in which the decision was made to retreat. Since their position was completely exposed, they delayed departure until nightfall, when their movements would be concealed.[28] In a conversation with one of his quartermasters, St. Clair observed that he could "save his character and lose the army" by holding the fort, or "save the army and lose his character" if he retreated, giving a clear indication of the political reaction he was expecting to his decision.[29]
All possible armaments, as well as invalids, camp followers, and supplies were loaded onto a fleet of more than 200 boats that began to move up the lake toward Skenesboro, accompanied by Colonel Pierse Long's regiment.[30] Owing to a shortage of boats, four invalids were left behind, as were the very largest cannons and a variety of supplies—everything from tents to cattle.[31] The rest of the army crossed to Mount Independence and headed down the Hubbardton road, which Riedesel's forces had not yet reached. A handful of men were left at the pontoon bridge with loaded cannons to fire on British attempts to cross it, but they were drunk when the British arrived the next morning.[32]
The British occupied the forts without firing a shot, and detachments from Fraser's and Riedesel's troops set out in pursuit of the retreating Americans on the Hubbardton road, while Burgoyne hurried some of his troops up the lake toward Skenesboro.[33]
Aftermath
For battles that occurred during the American retreat, see Battle of Fort Anne and Battle of Hubbardton.
At least seven Americans were killed and 11 wounded in skirmishing prior to the American retreat.[4] British casualties were not tallied, but at least five were killed in skirmishes.[6]
The Americans made good time on the Hubbardton road. Most of the force reached Castleton—a march of 30 miles (50 km)—on the evening of 6 July.[34] The British pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton when they caught up with the rear guard on the morning of 7 July, but this enabled the main American body to escape, eventually joining forces with Schuyler at Fort Edward.[35] The smaller American force that had fled by boat to Skenesboro fought off Burgoyne's advance force in the Battle of Fort Anne, but was forced to abandon equipment and many sick and wounded in skirmishing at Skenesboro.[36]
The confrontation at Ticonderoga did not substantially slow Burgoyne's advance, but he was forced to leave a garrison of more than 900 men in the Ticonderoga area, and wait until 11 July for the dispersed elements of his army to regroup at Skenesboro.[37] He then encountered delays in traveling the heavily wooded road between Skenesboro and Fort Edward, which General Schuyler's forces had effectively ruined by felling trees across it and destroying all its bridges in the swampy terrain.[38] Burgoyne's campaign ultimately failed and he was forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga.[39] General Gates reported to Governor George Clinton on 20 November that Ticonderoga and Independence had been abandoned and burned by the retreating British.[40]
Political and public outcry
King George III, detail of portrait by Allan Ramsay
The political and public outcry after the withdrawal was significant. The Congress was appalled, and criticized both Schuyler and St. Clair for the loss. John Adams wrote, "I think we shall never be able to defend a post until we shoot a general", and George Washington said it was "an event of chagrin and surprise, not apprehended nor within the compass of my reasoning".[35] Rumors circulated that St. Clair and Schuyler were traitors who had taken bribes in exchange for the retreat.[41]
Schuyler was eventually removed as commander of the Northern Department, replaced by General Gates; the fall of Ticonderoga was among the reasons cited.[42] St. Clair was removed from his command and sent to headquarters for an inquiry. He maintained that his conduct had been honorable, and demanded a review by court martial.[43] The court martial was not held until September 1778 due to political intrigues against Washington; St. Clair was completely exonerated,[44] although he was never given another field command.[45] Schuyler was also cleared of any wrongdoing by a court martial.[44]
The news made headlines in Europe. King George is reported to have burst into the chambers of the scantily clad Queen, exclaiming, "I have beat them! I have beat all the Americans!"[41] The French and Spanish courts were less happy with the news, as they had been supporting the Americans, allowing them to use their ports, and engaging in trade with them. The action emboldened the British to demand that France and Spain close their ports to the Americans; this demand was rejected, heightening tensions between the European powers.[46]
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