Thursday, September 29, 2011
Battle of Saratoga
American History1. Native American Society on the Eve of British Colonization a. Diversity of Native American Groups b. The Anasazi c. The Algonkian Tribes d. The Iroquois Tribes2. Britain in the New World a. Early Ventures Fail b. Joint-Stock Companies c. Jamestown Settlement and the "Starving Time" d. The Growth of the Tobacco Trade e. War and Peace with Powhatan's People f. The House of Burgesses3. The New England Colonies a. The Mayflower and Plymouth Colony b. William Bradford and the First Thanksgiving c. Massachusetts Bay — "The City Upon a Hill" d. Puritan Life e. Dissent in Massachusetts Bay f. Reaching to Connecticut g. Witchcraft in Salem4. The Middle Colonies a. New Netherland to New York b. Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey c. City of Brotherly Love — Philadelphia d. The Ideas of Benjamin Franklin5. The Southern Colonies a. Maryland — The Catholic Experiment b. Indentured Servants c. Creating the Carolinas d. Debtors in Georgia e. Life in the Plantation South6. African Americans in the British New World a. West African Society at the Point of European Contact b. "The Middle Passage" c. The Growth of Slavery d. Slave Life on the Farm and in the Town e. Free African Americans in the Colonial Era f. "Slave Codes" g. A New African-American Culture7. The Beginnings of Revolutionary Thinking a. The Impact of Enlightenment in Europe b. The Great Awakening c. The Trial of John Peter Zenger d. Smuggling e. A Tradition of Rebellion f. "What Is the American?"8. America's Place in the Global Struggle a. New France b. The French and Indian War c. George Washington's Background and Experience d. The Treaty of Paris (1763) and Its Impact9. The Events Leading to Independence a. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 b. The Stamp Act Controversy c. The Boston Patriots d. The Townshend Acts e. The Boston Massacre f. The Tea Act and Tea Parties g. The Intolerable Acts10. E Pluribus Unum a. Stamp Act Congress b. Sons and Daughters of Liberty c. Committees of Correspondence d. First Continental Congress e. Second Continental Congress f. Thomas Paine's Common Sense g. The Declaration of Independence11. The American Revolution a. American and British Strengths and Weaknesses b. Loyalists, Fence-sitters, and Patriots c. Lexington and Concord d. Bunker Hill e. The Revolution on the Home Front f. Washington at Valley Forge g. The Battle of Saratoga h. The French Alliance i. Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris12. Societal Impacts of the American Revolution a. The Impact of Slavery b. A Revolution in Social Law c. Political Experience d. "Republican Motherhood"13. When Does the Revolution End? a. The Declaration of Independence and Its Legacy b. The War Experience: Soldiers, Officers, and Civilians c. The Loyalists d. Revolutionary Changes and Limitations: Slavery e. Revolutionary Changes and Limitations: Women f. Revolutionary Limits: Native Americans g. Revolutionary Achievement: Yeomen and Artisans h. The Age of Atlantic Revolutions14. Making Rules a. State Constitutions b. Articles of Confederation c. Evaluating the Congress d. The Economic Crisis of the 1780s15. Drafting the Constitution a. Shays' Rebellion b. A Cast of National Superstars c. The Tough Issues d. Constitution Through Compromise16. Ratifying the Constitution a. Federalists b. Antifederalists c. The Ratification Process: State by State d. After the Fact: Virginia, New York, and "The Federalist Papers" e. The Antifederalists' Victory in Defeat17. George Washington a. Growing up in Colonial Virginia b. The Force of Personality and Military Command c. The First Administration d. Farewell Address e. Mount Vernon and the Dilemma of a Revolutionary Slave Holder18. Unsettled Domestic Issues a. The Bill of Rights b. Hamilton's Financial Plan c. Growing Opposition d. U.S. Military Defeat; Indian Victory in the West e. Native American Resilience and Violence in the West19. Politics in Transition: Public Conflict in the 1790s a. Trans-Atlantic Crisis: The French Revolution b. Negotiating with the Superpowers c. Two Parties Emerge d. The Adams Presidency e. The Alien and Sedition Acts f. The Life and Times of John Adams20. Jeffersonian America: A Second Revolution? a. The Election of 1800 b. Jeffersonian Ideology c. Westward Expansion: The Louisiana Purchase d. A New National Capital: Washington, D.C. e. A Federalist Stronghold: John Marshall's Supreme Court f. Gabriel's Rebellion: Another View of Virginia in 180021. The Expanding Republic and the War of 1812 a. The Importance of the West b. Exploration: Lewis and Clark c. Diplomatic Challenges in an Age of European War d. Native American Resistance in the Trans-Appalachian West e. The Second War for American Independence f. Claiming Victory from Defeat22. Social Change and National Development a. Economic Growth and the Early Industrial Revolution b. Cotton and African-American Life c. Religious Transformation and the Second Great Awakening d. Institutionalizing Religious Belief: The Benevolent Empire e. New Roles for White Women f. Early National Arts and Cultural Independence23. Politics and the New Nation a. The Era of Good Feelings and the Two-Party System b. The Expansion of the Vote: A White Man's Democracy c. The Missouri Compromise d. The 1824 Election and the "Corrupt Bargain" e. John Quincy Adams f. Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America24. The Age of Jackson a. The Rise of the Common Man b. A Strong Presidency c. The South Carolina Nullification Controversy d. The War Against the Bank e. Jackson vs. Clay and Calhoun f. The Trail of Tears — The Indian Removals25. The Rise of American Industry a. The Canal Era b. Early American Railroads c. Inventors and Inventions d. The First American Factories e. The Emergence of "Women's Sphere" f. Irish and German Immigration26. An Explosion of New Thought a. Religious Revival b. Experiments with Utopia c. Women's Rights d. Prison and Asylum Reform e. Hudson River School Artists f. Transcendentalism, An American Philosophy27. The Peculiar Institution a. The Crowning of King Cotton b. Slave Life and Slave Codes c. The Plantation & Chivalry d. Free(?) African-Americans e. Rebellions on and off the Plantation f. The Southern Argument for Slavery28. Abolitionist Sentiment Grows a. William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator b. African-American Abolitionists c. The Underground Railroad d. Harriet Beecher Stowe — Uncle Tom's Cabin29. Manifest Destiny a. The Lone Star Republic b. 54° 40' or Fight c. "American Blood on American Soil" d. The Mexican-American War e. Gold in California30. An Uneasy Peace a. Wilmot's Proviso b. Popular Sovereignty c. Three Senatorial Giants: Clay, Calhoun and Webster d. The Compromise of 185031. "Bloody Kansas" a. The Kansas-Nebraska Act b. Border Ruffians c. The Sack of Lawrence d. The Pottawatomie Creek Massacre e. Canefight! Preston Brooks and Charles Sumner32. From Uneasy Peace to Bitter Conflict a. The Dred Scott Decision b. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates c. John Brown's Raid d. The Election of 1860 e. The South Secedes33. A House Divided a. Fort Sumter b. Strengths and Weaknesses: North vs. South c. First Blood and Its Aftermath d. Sacred Beliefs e. Bloody Antietam f. Of Generals and Soldiers g. Gettysburg: High Watermark of the Confederacy h. Northern Plans to End the War i. The Road to Appomattox34. The War Behind the Lines a. The Emancipation Proclamation b. Wartime Diplomacy c. The Northern Homefront d. The Southern Homefront e. The Election of 1864 f. The Assassination of the President35. Reconstruction a. Presidential Reconstruction b. Radical Reconstruction c. A President Impeached d. Rebuilding the Old Order36. The Gilded Age a. Binding the Nation by Rail b. The New Tycoons: John D. Rockefeller c. The New Tycoons: Andrew Carnegie d. The New Tycoons: J. Pierpont Morgan e. New Attitudes Toward Wealth f. Politics of the Gilded Age37. Organized Labor a. The Great Upheaval b. Labor vs. Management c. Early National Organizations d. American Federation of Labor e. Eugene V. Debs and American Socialism38. From the Countryside to the City a. The Glamour of American Cities b. The Underside of Urban Life c. The Rush of Immigrants d. Corruption Runs Wild e. Religious Revival: The "Social Gospel" f. Artistic and Literary Trends39. New Dimensions in Everyday Life a. Education b. Sports and Leisure c. Women in the Gilded Age d. Victorian Values in a New Age e. The Print Revolution40. Closing the Frontier a. The Massacre at Sand Creek b. Custer's Last Stand c. The End of Resistance d. Life on the Reservations e. The Wounded Knee Massacre41. Western Folkways a. The Mining Boom b. The Ways of the Cowboy c. Life on the Farm d. The Growth of Populism e. The Election of 189642. Progressivism Sweeps the Nation a. Roots of the Movement b. Muckrakers c. Women's Suffrage at Last d. Booker T. Washington e. W. E. B. DuBois43. Progressives in the White House a. Teddy Roosevelt: The Rough Rider in the White House b. The Trust Buster c. A Helping Hand for Labor d. Preserving the Wilderness e. Passing the Torch f. The Election of 1912 g. Woodrow Wilson's New Freedom44. Seeking Empire a. Early Stirrings b. Hawaiian Annexation c. "Remember the Maine!" d. The Spanish-American War and Its Consequences e. The Roosevelt Corollary and Latin America f. Reaching to Asia g. The Panama Canal45. America in the First World War a. Farewell to Isolation b. Over There c. Over Here d. The Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations46. The Decade That Roared a. The Age of the Automobile b. The Fight Against "Demon Rum" c. The Invention of the Teenager d. Flappers e. The Harlem Renaissance f. A Consumer Economy g. Radio Fever h. Fads and Heroes47. Old Values vs. New Values a. The Red Scare b. The Monkey Trial c. Intolerance d. Books and Movies e. Domestic and International Politics48. The Great Depression a. The Market Crashes b. Sinking Deeper and Deeper: 1929-33 c. The Bonus March d. Hoover's Last Stand e. Social and Cultural Effects of the Depression49. The New Deal a. A Bank Holiday b. Putting People Back to Work c. The Farming Problem d. Social Security e. FDR's Alphabet Soup f. Roosevelt's Critics g. An Evaluation of the New Deal50. The Road to Pearl Harbor a. 1930s Isolationism b. Reactions to a Troubled World c. War Breaks Out d. The Arsenal of Democracy e. Pearl Harbor51. America in the Second World War a. Wartime Strategy b. The American Homefront c. D-Day and the German Surrender d. War in the Pacific e. Japanese-American Internment f. The Manhattan Project g. The Decision to Drop the Bomb52. Postwar Challenges a. The Cold War Erupts b. The United Nations c. Containment and the Marshall Plan d. The Berlin Airlift and NATO e. The Korean War f. Domestic Challenges53. The 1950s: Happy Days a. McCarthyism b. Suburban Growth c. Land of Television d. America Rocks and Rolls e. The Cold War Continues f. Voices against Conformity54. A New Civil Rights Movement a. Separate No Longer? b. Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott c. Showdown in Little Rock d. The Sit-In Movement e. Gains and Pains f. Martin Luther King Jr. g. The Long, Hot Summers h. Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam i. Black Power55. The Vietnam War a. Early Involvement b. Years of Escalation: 1965-68 c. The Tet Offensive d. The Antiwar Movement e. Years of Withdrawal56. Politics from Camelot to Watergate a. The Election of 1960 b. Kennedy's New Frontier c. Kennedy's Global Challenges d. Kennedy Assassination e. Lyndon Johnson's "Great Society" f. 1968: Year of Unraveling g. Triangular Diplomacy: U.S., USSR, and China57. Shaping a New America a. Modern Feminism b. The Fight for Reproductive Rights c. The Equal Rights Amendment d. Roe v. Wade and Its Impact e. Environmental Reform f. Others Demand Equality g. Student Activism h. Flower Power58. A Time of Malaise a. Undoing a President b. The Sickened Economy c. Foreign Woes d. Finding Oneself e. The New Right59. The Reagan Years a. "Morning in America" b. Reaganomics c. Foreign and Domestic Entanglements d. Life in the 1980s e. The End of the Cold War60. Toward a New Millennium a. Operation Desert Storm b. A Baby Boomer in the White House c. Republicans vs. Democrats d. Living in the Information Age e. The End of the American Century
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11g. The Battle of Saratoga
British general John Burgoyne earned the nickname "Gentleman Johnny" for his love of leisure and his tendency to throw parties between battles. His surrender to American forces at the Battle of Saratoga marked a turning point in the Revolutionary War.The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the Revolutionary War.
The scope of the victory is made clear by a few key facts: On October 17, 1777, 5,895 British and Hessian troops surrendered their arms. General John Burgoyne had lost 86 percent of his expeditionary force that had triumphantly marched into New York from Canada in the early summer of 1777.
Divide and Conquer
The divide-and-conquer strategy that Burgoyne presented to British ministers in London was to invade America from Canada by advancing down the Hudson Valley to Albany. There, he would be joined by other British troops under the command of Sir William Howe. Howe would be bringing his troops north from New Jersey and New York City.
Burgoyne believed that this bold stroke would not only isolate New England from the other American colonies, but achieve command of the Hudson River and demoralize Americans and their would-be allies, such as the French.
Some historians today are unsure if her death came at Native American hands or by other means, but the murder of Jane McCrea united Americans against the British and their Native American allies.In June 1777, Burgoyne's army of over 7,000 men (half of whom were British troops and the other half Hessian troops from Brunswick and Hesse-Hanau) departed from St. Johns on Lake Champlain, bound for Fort Ticonderoga, at the southern end of the lake.
As the army proceeded southward, Burgoyne drafted and had his men distribute a proclamation that, among other things, included the statement "I have but to give stretch to the Indian forces under my direction, and they amount to thousands," which implied that Britain's enemies would suffer attacks from Native Americans allied to the British.
More than any other act during the campaign, this threat and subsequent widely reported atrocities such as the scalping of Jane McCrea stiffened the resolve of the Americans to do whatever it took to assure that the threat did not become reality.
Instead of heading north to help Burgoyne fight the rebels in Saratoga, General Howe sailed south and embarked on a campaign to capture Philadelphia.Round One to the British
The American forces at Fort Ticonderoga recognized that once the British mounted artillery on high ground near the fort, Ticonderoga would be indefensible. A retreat from the Fort was ordered, and the Americans floated troops, cannon, and supplies across Lake Champlain to Mount Independence.
From there the army set out for Hubbardton where the British and German troops caught up with them and gave battle. Round one to the British.
Burgoyne continued his march towards Albany, but miles to the south a disturbing event occurred. Sir William Howe decided to attack the Rebel capital at Philadelphia rather than deploying his army to meet up with Burgoyne and cut off New England from the other Colonies. Meanwhile, as Burgoyne marched south, his supply lines from Canada were becoming longer and less reliable.
I have the honor to inform your Lordship that the enemy [were] dislodged from Ticonderoga and Mount Independent, on the 6th instant, and were driven on the same day, beyond Skenesborough on the right, and the Humerton [Hubbardton] on the left with the loss of 128 pieces of cannon, all their armed vessels and bateaux, the greatest part of their baggage and ammunition, provision and military stores ...
– General John Burgoyne, letter to Lord George Germain (1777)
Bennington: "the compleatest Victory gain'd this War"
As Burgoyne and his troops marched down from Canada, the British managed to win several successful campaigns as well as infuriate the colonists. By the time the Burgoyne reached Saratoga, Americans had successfully rallied support to beat him.In early August, word came that a substantial supply depot at Bennington, Vermont, was alleged to be lightly guarded, and Burgoyne dispatched German troops to take the depot and return with the supplies. This time, however, stiff resistance was encountered, and American general John Stark surrounded and captured almost 500 German soldiers. One observer reported Bennington as "the compleatest Victory gain'd this War."
Burgoyne now realized, too late, that the Loyalists (Tories) who were supposed to have come to his aid by the hundreds had not appeared, and that his Native American allies were also undependable.
American general Schuyler proceed to burn supplies and crops in the line of Burgoyne's advance so that the British were forced to rely on their ever-longer and more and more unreliable supply line to Canada. On the American side, General Horatio Gates arrived in New York to take command of the American forces.
Battle of Freeman's Farm
Mask letters, invisible ink, and secret code are the tricks of the trade for any good spy. Loyalist Henry Clinton used a mask letter to communicate with Burgoyne.By mid-September, with the fall weather reminding Burgoyne that he could not winter where he was and needed to proceed rapidly toward Albany, the British army crossed the Hudson and headed for Saratoga.
On September 19 the two forces met at Freeman's Farm north of Albany. While the British were left as "masters of the field," they sustained heavy human losses. Years later, American Henry Dearborn expressed the sentiment that "we had something more at stake than fighting for six Pence pr Day."
Battle of Saratoga
In late September and during the first week of October 1777, Gate's American army was positioned between Burgoyne's army and Albany. On October 7, Burgoyne took the offensive. The troops crashed together south of the town of Saratoga, and Burgoyne's army was broken. In mop-up operations 86 percent of Burgoyne's command was captured.
The victory gave new life to the American cause at a critical time. Americans had just suffered a major setback the Battle of the Brandywine along with news of the fall of Philadelphia to the British.
One American soldier declared, "It was a glorious sight to see the haughty Brittons march out & surrender their arms to an army which but a little before they despised and called paltroons."
A stupendous American victory in October 1777, the success at Saratoga gave France the confidence in the American cause to enter the war as an American ally. Later American successes owed a great deal to French aid in the form of financial and military assistance.
A Word about Spies
Spies worked for both British and American armies. Secret messages and battle plans were passed in a variety of creative ways, including being sewn into buttons. Patriots and loyalists penned these secret letters either in code, with invisible ink, or as mask letters.
Here is an example of Loyalist Sir Henry Clinton's mask letter. The letter on the left is the mask letter with the secret message decoded; to the right is an excerpt of the full letter.
Sir. W. Howe / is gone to the / Chesapeak bay with / the greatest part of the / army. I hear he is / landed but am not / certain. I am / left to command / here with / too small a force / to make any effectual / diversion in your favour. / I shall try something / at any rate. It may be of use / to you. I own to you I think / Sr W's move just at this time / the worst he could take. / Much joy on your success.
– Henry Clinton, letter to John Burgoyne (August 10, 1777)
I shall try some thing certainly/ towards the close / of the year, not till then at any rate. It may be of use to inform you that / report says all yields to you. I own to you that I think the business will / quickly be over now. Sr. W's move just at this time has been capital. / Washingtons have been the worst he could take in every respect. / sincerely give you much joy on your success and am with / great Sincerity your [ ] / HC
– Henry Clinton, letter to John Burgoyne (August 10, 1777)
Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold is best remembered as a traitor; an American patriot who spied for the British during the American Revolution. But there is more to his story than this sad event.
Arnold was a fierce patriot during the Stamp Act crisis and the early years of the American Revolution. During the battles of Lexington and Concord, Arnold worked with Ethan Allen to capture Fort Ticonderoga and was named a colonel.
As a member of George Washington's Continental Army, he led a failed attack on Quebec, but was nonetheless named brigadier general in 1776.
His next big moment came at the Battle of Saratoga. Here, Benedict Arnold was instrumental in stopping the advance of the British and in obtaining the surrender of British General John Burgoyne.
During the Battle of Freeman's Farm, Arnold's leg was severely wounded when pinned beneath his horse. (Both Arnold and his leg survived, there is a monument to his leg at Saratoga National Historic Park.)
Over the next two years, Benedict Arnold remained a patriot, but was upset and embittered at what he felt was a lack of his recognition and contribution to the war. In 1778, following British evacuation of Philadelphia, George Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city.
This is where the story gets interesting.
In Philadelphia, Benedict Arnold was introduced to and fell in love with Margaret (Peggy) Shippen, a young, well-to-do loyalist who was half his age. Ms. Shippen had previously been friendly with John André, a British spy who had been in Philadelphia during the occupation as the adjutant to the British commander in chief, Sir Henry Clinton. It is believed that Peggy introduced Arnold to André.
Meanwhile, Benedict Arnold's reputation while in Philadelphia was beginning to tarnish. He was accused of using public wagons for private profit and of being friendly to Loyalists. Faced with a court-martial for corruption, he resigned his post on March 19, 1779.
Following his resignation, Arnold began a correspondence with John André, now chief of British intelligence services. But Arnold had also maintained his close relationship with George Washington and still had access to important information. Over the next few months Benedict Arnold continued his talks with André and agreed to hand over key information to the British. Specifically, Arnold offered to hand over the most strategic fortress in America: West Point.
Arnold and André finally met in person, and Arnold handed over information to the British spy. But, unfortunately for both men, André was caught and Arnold's letter was found. Arnold's friend, George Washington, was heartbroken over the news, but was forced to deal with the treacherous act. While Benedict Arnold escaped to British-occupied New York, where he was protected from punishment.
John André was executed for spying.
Benedict Arnold was named brigadier general by the British government and sent on raids to Virginia. Following Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown in 1781, Arnold and his family sailed to Britain with his family. He died in London in 1801.
Share Your Thoughts
11g. The Battle of Saratoga
British general John Burgoyne earned the nickname "Gentleman Johnny" for his love of leisure and his tendency to throw parties between battles. His surrender to American forces at the Battle of Saratoga marked a turning point in the Revolutionary War.The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the Revolutionary War.
The scope of the victory is made clear by a few key facts: On October 17, 1777, 5,895 British and Hessian troops surrendered their arms. General John Burgoyne had lost 86 percent of his expeditionary force that had triumphantly marched into New York from Canada in the early summer of 1777.
Divide and Conquer
The divide-and-conquer strategy that Burgoyne presented to British ministers in London was to invade America from Canada by advancing down the Hudson Valley to Albany. There, he would be joined by other British troops under the command of Sir William Howe. Howe would be bringing his troops north from New Jersey and New York City.
Burgoyne believed that this bold stroke would not only isolate New England from the other American colonies, but achieve command of the Hudson River and demoralize Americans and their would-be allies, such as the French.
Some historians today are unsure if her death came at Native American hands or by other means, but the murder of Jane McCrea united Americans against the British and their Native American allies.In June 1777, Burgoyne's army of over 7,000 men (half of whom were British troops and the other half Hessian troops from Brunswick and Hesse-Hanau) departed from St. Johns on Lake Champlain, bound for Fort Ticonderoga, at the southern end of the lake.
As the army proceeded southward, Burgoyne drafted and had his men distribute a proclamation that, among other things, included the statement "I have but to give stretch to the Indian forces under my direction, and they amount to thousands," which implied that Britain's enemies would suffer attacks from Native Americans allied to the British.
More than any other act during the campaign, this threat and subsequent widely reported atrocities such as the scalping of Jane McCrea stiffened the resolve of the Americans to do whatever it took to assure that the threat did not become reality.
Instead of heading north to help Burgoyne fight the rebels in Saratoga, General Howe sailed south and embarked on a campaign to capture Philadelphia.Round One to the British
The American forces at Fort Ticonderoga recognized that once the British mounted artillery on high ground near the fort, Ticonderoga would be indefensible. A retreat from the Fort was ordered, and the Americans floated troops, cannon, and supplies across Lake Champlain to Mount Independence.
From there the army set out for Hubbardton where the British and German troops caught up with them and gave battle. Round one to the British.
Burgoyne continued his march towards Albany, but miles to the south a disturbing event occurred. Sir William Howe decided to attack the Rebel capital at Philadelphia rather than deploying his army to meet up with Burgoyne and cut off New England from the other Colonies. Meanwhile, as Burgoyne marched south, his supply lines from Canada were becoming longer and less reliable.
I have the honor to inform your Lordship that the enemy [were] dislodged from Ticonderoga and Mount Independent, on the 6th instant, and were driven on the same day, beyond Skenesborough on the right, and the Humerton [Hubbardton] on the left with the loss of 128 pieces of cannon, all their armed vessels and bateaux, the greatest part of their baggage and ammunition, provision and military stores ...
– General John Burgoyne, letter to Lord George Germain (1777)
Bennington: "the compleatest Victory gain'd this War"
As Burgoyne and his troops marched down from Canada, the British managed to win several successful campaigns as well as infuriate the colonists. By the time the Burgoyne reached Saratoga, Americans had successfully rallied support to beat him.In early August, word came that a substantial supply depot at Bennington, Vermont, was alleged to be lightly guarded, and Burgoyne dispatched German troops to take the depot and return with the supplies. This time, however, stiff resistance was encountered, and American general John Stark surrounded and captured almost 500 German soldiers. One observer reported Bennington as "the compleatest Victory gain'd this War."
Burgoyne now realized, too late, that the Loyalists (Tories) who were supposed to have come to his aid by the hundreds had not appeared, and that his Native American allies were also undependable.
American general Schuyler proceed to burn supplies and crops in the line of Burgoyne's advance so that the British were forced to rely on their ever-longer and more and more unreliable supply line to Canada. On the American side, General Horatio Gates arrived in New York to take command of the American forces.
Battle of Freeman's Farm
Mask letters, invisible ink, and secret code are the tricks of the trade for any good spy. Loyalist Henry Clinton used a mask letter to communicate with Burgoyne.By mid-September, with the fall weather reminding Burgoyne that he could not winter where he was and needed to proceed rapidly toward Albany, the British army crossed the Hudson and headed for Saratoga.
On September 19 the two forces met at Freeman's Farm north of Albany. While the British were left as "masters of the field," they sustained heavy human losses. Years later, American Henry Dearborn expressed the sentiment that "we had something more at stake than fighting for six Pence pr Day."
Battle of Saratoga
In late September and during the first week of October 1777, Gate's American army was positioned between Burgoyne's army and Albany. On October 7, Burgoyne took the offensive. The troops crashed together south of the town of Saratoga, and Burgoyne's army was broken. In mop-up operations 86 percent of Burgoyne's command was captured.
The victory gave new life to the American cause at a critical time. Americans had just suffered a major setback the Battle of the Brandywine along with news of the fall of Philadelphia to the British.
One American soldier declared, "It was a glorious sight to see the haughty Brittons march out & surrender their arms to an army which but a little before they despised and called paltroons."
A stupendous American victory in October 1777, the success at Saratoga gave France the confidence in the American cause to enter the war as an American ally. Later American successes owed a great deal to French aid in the form of financial and military assistance.
A Word about Spies
Spies worked for both British and American armies. Secret messages and battle plans were passed in a variety of creative ways, including being sewn into buttons. Patriots and loyalists penned these secret letters either in code, with invisible ink, or as mask letters.
Here is an example of Loyalist Sir Henry Clinton's mask letter. The letter on the left is the mask letter with the secret message decoded; to the right is an excerpt of the full letter.
Sir. W. Howe / is gone to the / Chesapeak bay with / the greatest part of the / army. I hear he is / landed but am not / certain. I am / left to command / here with / too small a force / to make any effectual / diversion in your favour. / I shall try something / at any rate. It may be of use / to you. I own to you I think / Sr W's move just at this time / the worst he could take. / Much joy on your success.
– Henry Clinton, letter to John Burgoyne (August 10, 1777)
I shall try some thing certainly/ towards the close / of the year, not till then at any rate. It may be of use to inform you that / report says all yields to you. I own to you that I think the business will / quickly be over now. Sr. W's move just at this time has been capital. / Washingtons have been the worst he could take in every respect. / sincerely give you much joy on your success and am with / great Sincerity your [ ] / HC
– Henry Clinton, letter to John Burgoyne (August 10, 1777)
Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold is best remembered as a traitor; an American patriot who spied for the British during the American Revolution. But there is more to his story than this sad event.
Arnold was a fierce patriot during the Stamp Act crisis and the early years of the American Revolution. During the battles of Lexington and Concord, Arnold worked with Ethan Allen to capture Fort Ticonderoga and was named a colonel.
As a member of George Washington's Continental Army, he led a failed attack on Quebec, but was nonetheless named brigadier general in 1776.
His next big moment came at the Battle of Saratoga. Here, Benedict Arnold was instrumental in stopping the advance of the British and in obtaining the surrender of British General John Burgoyne.
During the Battle of Freeman's Farm, Arnold's leg was severely wounded when pinned beneath his horse. (Both Arnold and his leg survived, there is a monument to his leg at Saratoga National Historic Park.)
Over the next two years, Benedict Arnold remained a patriot, but was upset and embittered at what he felt was a lack of his recognition and contribution to the war. In 1778, following British evacuation of Philadelphia, George Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city.
This is where the story gets interesting.
In Philadelphia, Benedict Arnold was introduced to and fell in love with Margaret (Peggy) Shippen, a young, well-to-do loyalist who was half his age. Ms. Shippen had previously been friendly with John André, a British spy who had been in Philadelphia during the occupation as the adjutant to the British commander in chief, Sir Henry Clinton. It is believed that Peggy introduced Arnold to André.
Meanwhile, Benedict Arnold's reputation while in Philadelphia was beginning to tarnish. He was accused of using public wagons for private profit and of being friendly to Loyalists. Faced with a court-martial for corruption, he resigned his post on March 19, 1779.
Following his resignation, Arnold began a correspondence with John André, now chief of British intelligence services. But Arnold had also maintained his close relationship with George Washington and still had access to important information. Over the next few months Benedict Arnold continued his talks with André and agreed to hand over key information to the British. Specifically, Arnold offered to hand over the most strategic fortress in America: West Point.
Arnold and André finally met in person, and Arnold handed over information to the British spy. But, unfortunately for both men, André was caught and Arnold's letter was found. Arnold's friend, George Washington, was heartbroken over the news, but was forced to deal with the treacherous act. While Benedict Arnold escaped to British-occupied New York, where he was protected from punishment.
John André was executed for spying.
Benedict Arnold was named brigadier general by the British government and sent on raids to Virginia. Following Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown in 1781, Arnold and his family sailed to Britain with his family. He died in London in 1801.
Battle of Philadelphia
Battle of Brandywine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Brandywine
Part of the American Revolutionary War
Hessian map of the Philadelphia campaign
Date
September 11, 1777
Location
Near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania
39°52′19″N 75°35′24″WCoordinates: 39°52′19″N 75°35′24″W
Result
Decisive British victory
Belligerents
United States
Great Britain
Hesse-Kassel
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
William Howe
Strength
14,600 [1]
15,500 [1]
Casualties and losses
Total: 1300
300 killed
600 wounded
400 captured
[2]
Total: 587
93 Killed
488 wounded
6 missing[2]
[show]v · d · e
Philadelphia campaign
1777–1778
The Battle of Brandywine, also known as the Battle of the Brandywine or the Battle of Brandywine Creek, was a battle of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on September 11, 1777. It was fought in the area surrounding Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania and the Brandywine River. The battle, which was a decisive victory for the British, left Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital, undefended. The British captured the city on September 26, beginning an occupation that would last until June 1778.
Contents
[hide] 1 Background
2 Battle 2.1 The British advance
2.2 American counterattack dissolves into retreat
3 Losses
4 Aftermath
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
[edit] Background
Main article: Philadelphia campaign
In late July 1777, after a distressing 34-day journey from Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey, a Royal Navy fleet of more than 260 ships carrying some 17,000 British troops under the command of British General Sir William Howe landed at the head of the Elk River, on the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay near present-day Elkton, Maryland (then known as Head of Elk), approximately 40–50 miles (60–80 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Unloading the ships proved to be a logistical problem because the narrow river neck was shallow and muddy.
General George Washington had situated the American forces, about 20,300 strong, between Head of Elk and Philadelphia. His forces were able to reconnoiter the British landing from Iron Hill near Newark, Delaware, about nine miles (14 km) to the northeast. Because of the delay disembarking from the ships, Howe did not set up a typical camp but quickly moved forward with the troops. As a result, Washington was not able to accurately gauge the strength of the opposing forces.
After a skirmish at Cooch's Bridge south of Newark, the British troops moved north and Washington abandoned a defensive encampment along the Red Clay Creek near Newport, Delaware to deploy against the British at Chadds Ford. This site was important as it was the most direct passage across the Brandywine River on the road from Baltimore to Philadelphia. On September 9, Washington positioned detachments to guard other fords above and below Chadds Ford, hoping to force the battle there. Washington employed General John Armstrong, commanding about 1,000 Pennsylvania militia, to cover Pyle's Ford, a few hundred yards south of Chadds Ford, which was covered by Major Generals Anthony Wayne's and Nathanael Greene's divisions. Major General John Sullivan's division extended northward along the Brandywine's east banks, covering the high ground north of Chadds Ford along with Major General Adam Stephen's division and Major General Lord Stirling's divisions. Further upstream was a brigade under Colonel Moses Hazen covering Buffington's Ford and Wistar's Ford. Washington was confident that the area was secure.
The British grouped forces at nearby Kennett Square.[3] Howe, who had better information about the area than Washington, had no intention of mounting a full scale frontal attack against the prepared American defenses. He instead employed a flanking maneuver, similar to that used in the Battle of Long Island. About 5,000 men under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen advanced to meet Washington's troops at Chadds Ford. The remainder of Howe's troops, under the command of Charles, Lord Cornwallis, marched north to Trimble's Ford across the West Branch of the Brandywine Creek, then east to Jefferis Ford across the East Branch (two fords that Washington had overlooked), and then south to flank the American forces.[4]
[edit] Battle
[edit] The British advance
The Battle of Brandywine, 11 September 1777
Birmingham Meetinghouse in 1974
September 11 began with a heavy fog, which provided cover for the British troops. Washington received contradictory reports about the British troop movements and continued to believe that the main force was moving to attack at Chadds Ford. At 5:30 a.m. the British and Hessian troops began marching east along the "Great Road" (now Route 1) from Kennett Square, advancing on the American troops positioned where the road crossed Brandywine Creek. The first shots of the battle took place at a tavern where the British were repulsed. The British called for reinforcements and ran down the road to take cover behind the stone walls on the Old Kennett Meetinghouse grounds. The battle was fought at mid-morning around the meeting house while the pacifist Quakers continued to hold their midweek service. One of the Quakers later wrote, "While there was much noise and confusion without, all was quiet and peaceful within."[citation needed]
From the Meetinghouse grounds, the battle continued for three miles to what is now Battlefield Park. Eventually the British pushed the Americans back but not before suffering heavy losses. The British appeared on the Americans' right flank at around 2 p.m. With Hazen's brigades outflanked, Sullivan, Stephen, and Stirling tried to reposition their troops to meet the unexpected British threat to their right flank. Howe was slow to attack, which bought time for the Americans to position some of their men on high ground at Birmingham Meetinghouse, about a mile (1.6 km) north of Chadds Ford.[5] By 4 p.m., the British attacked, with Stephen's and Stirling's divisions receiving the brunt of the assault; both American divisions lost ground fast.
[edit] American counterattack dissolves into retreat
The battlefield today, south of Meeting House Hill
Sullivan attacked a group of Hessian troops trying to outflank Stirling's men near Meeting House Hill and bought some time for most of Stirling's men to withdraw, but returned British fire forced Sullivan's men to retreat. At this point, slightly after 4 p.m., Washington and Greene arrived with reinforcements to try to hold off the British, who now occupied Meeting House Hill. These reinforcements, combined with the remnants of Sullivan's, Stephen's, and Stirling's divisions, stopped the pursuing British for nearly an hour but were eventually forced to retreat. The Americans were also forced to leave behind many of their cannon on Meeting House Hill because almost all of their artillery horses were killed.
Knyphausen, on the east bank of the Brandywine, launched an attack against the weakened American center across Chadds Ford, breaking through the divisions commanded by Wayne and William Maxwell and forcing them to retreat and leave behind most of their cannon. Armstrong's militia, never engaged in the fighting, also decided to retreat from their positions. Further north, Greene sent Brigadier General George Weedon's troops to cover the road just outside the town of Dilworth to hold off the British long enough for the rest of the Continental Army to retreat. Darkness brought the British pursuit to a standstill, which then allowed Weedon's force to retreat. The defeated Americans retreated to Chester where most of them arrived at midnight, with stragglers arriving until morning. The American retreat was well-organized largely due to the efforts of Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, who, although wounded, created a rally point that allowed for a more orderly retreat before being treated for his wound.[6]
[edit] Losses
Nation Makers depicts a scene from the battle, by Howard Pyle, a summer resident of Chadds Ford. The painting is displayed in the Brandywine River Museum
George Washington's Headquarters
The official British casualty list detailed 587 casualties: 93 killed (eight officers, seven sergeants and 78 rank and file); 488 wounded (49 officers, 40 sergeants, four drummers and 395 rank and file); and six rank and file missing unaccounted for.[2] Only 40 of the British Army’s casualties were Hessians.[7] Historian Thomas J. McGuire writes that, "American estimates of British losses run as high as 2,000, based on distant observation and sketchy, unreliable reports".[2]
No casualty return for the American army at Brandywine survives and no figures, official or otherwise, were ever released. Most accounts of the American loss were from the British side. One initial report by a British officer recorded American casualties at over 200 killed, around 750 wounded, and 400 prisoners taken, many of them wounded. A member of General Howe's staff claimed that 400 rebels were buried on the field by the victors.[8] Another British officer wrote that, "The Enemy had 502 dead in the field".[2] General Howe's report to the British Secretary of War, Lord Germain, said that the Americans, "had about 300 men killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 made prisoners".[9] On September 14, 350 wounded Americans were taken from the British camp at Dilworth to a newly-established hospital at Wilmington, Delaware.[10] This would suggest that of the "near 400" prisoners reported by Howe, only about 50 had surrendered unwounded. If General Greene's estimate of the total American loss was accurate, then they had between 1,160 and 1,260 killed, wounded or deserted during the battle. The British also captured 11 out of 14 of the American artillery guns. Among the American wounded was the Marquis de Lafayette.
In addition to losses in battle, 315 men were posted as deserters from Washington's camp during this stage of the Philadelphia Campaign.[11]
[edit] Aftermath
The 7th Pennsylvania Regiments Brandywine flag
Although Howe had defeated the American army, his lack of cavalry prevented its total destruction. Washington had committed a serious error in leaving his right flank wide open and nearly brought about his army's annihilation had it not been for Sullivan, Stirling and Stephen's divisions, which fought for time. Evening was approaching and, in spite of the early start Cornwallis had made in the flanking manoeuvre, most of the American army was able to escape.
British and Patriot forces manoeuvred around each other for the next several days with only comparatively minor encounters such as the Battle of Paoli on the night of September 20–21.
The Continental Congress abandoned Philadelphia, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania for one day and then to York, Pennsylvania. Military supplies were moved out of the city to Reading, Pennsylvania. On September 26, 1777, British forces marched into Philadelphia unopposed.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Brandywine
Part of the American Revolutionary War
Hessian map of the Philadelphia campaign
Date
September 11, 1777
Location
Near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania
39°52′19″N 75°35′24″WCoordinates: 39°52′19″N 75°35′24″W
Result
Decisive British victory
Belligerents
United States
Great Britain
Hesse-Kassel
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
William Howe
Strength
14,600 [1]
15,500 [1]
Casualties and losses
Total: 1300
300 killed
600 wounded
400 captured
[2]
Total: 587
93 Killed
488 wounded
6 missing[2]
[show]v · d · e
Philadelphia campaign
1777–1778
The Battle of Brandywine, also known as the Battle of the Brandywine or the Battle of Brandywine Creek, was a battle of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on September 11, 1777. It was fought in the area surrounding Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania and the Brandywine River. The battle, which was a decisive victory for the British, left Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital, undefended. The British captured the city on September 26, beginning an occupation that would last until June 1778.
Contents
[hide] 1 Background
2 Battle 2.1 The British advance
2.2 American counterattack dissolves into retreat
3 Losses
4 Aftermath
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
[edit] Background
Main article: Philadelphia campaign
In late July 1777, after a distressing 34-day journey from Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey, a Royal Navy fleet of more than 260 ships carrying some 17,000 British troops under the command of British General Sir William Howe landed at the head of the Elk River, on the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay near present-day Elkton, Maryland (then known as Head of Elk), approximately 40–50 miles (60–80 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Unloading the ships proved to be a logistical problem because the narrow river neck was shallow and muddy.
General George Washington had situated the American forces, about 20,300 strong, between Head of Elk and Philadelphia. His forces were able to reconnoiter the British landing from Iron Hill near Newark, Delaware, about nine miles (14 km) to the northeast. Because of the delay disembarking from the ships, Howe did not set up a typical camp but quickly moved forward with the troops. As a result, Washington was not able to accurately gauge the strength of the opposing forces.
After a skirmish at Cooch's Bridge south of Newark, the British troops moved north and Washington abandoned a defensive encampment along the Red Clay Creek near Newport, Delaware to deploy against the British at Chadds Ford. This site was important as it was the most direct passage across the Brandywine River on the road from Baltimore to Philadelphia. On September 9, Washington positioned detachments to guard other fords above and below Chadds Ford, hoping to force the battle there. Washington employed General John Armstrong, commanding about 1,000 Pennsylvania militia, to cover Pyle's Ford, a few hundred yards south of Chadds Ford, which was covered by Major Generals Anthony Wayne's and Nathanael Greene's divisions. Major General John Sullivan's division extended northward along the Brandywine's east banks, covering the high ground north of Chadds Ford along with Major General Adam Stephen's division and Major General Lord Stirling's divisions. Further upstream was a brigade under Colonel Moses Hazen covering Buffington's Ford and Wistar's Ford. Washington was confident that the area was secure.
The British grouped forces at nearby Kennett Square.[3] Howe, who had better information about the area than Washington, had no intention of mounting a full scale frontal attack against the prepared American defenses. He instead employed a flanking maneuver, similar to that used in the Battle of Long Island. About 5,000 men under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen advanced to meet Washington's troops at Chadds Ford. The remainder of Howe's troops, under the command of Charles, Lord Cornwallis, marched north to Trimble's Ford across the West Branch of the Brandywine Creek, then east to Jefferis Ford across the East Branch (two fords that Washington had overlooked), and then south to flank the American forces.[4]
[edit] Battle
[edit] The British advance
The Battle of Brandywine, 11 September 1777
Birmingham Meetinghouse in 1974
September 11 began with a heavy fog, which provided cover for the British troops. Washington received contradictory reports about the British troop movements and continued to believe that the main force was moving to attack at Chadds Ford. At 5:30 a.m. the British and Hessian troops began marching east along the "Great Road" (now Route 1) from Kennett Square, advancing on the American troops positioned where the road crossed Brandywine Creek. The first shots of the battle took place at a tavern where the British were repulsed. The British called for reinforcements and ran down the road to take cover behind the stone walls on the Old Kennett Meetinghouse grounds. The battle was fought at mid-morning around the meeting house while the pacifist Quakers continued to hold their midweek service. One of the Quakers later wrote, "While there was much noise and confusion without, all was quiet and peaceful within."[citation needed]
From the Meetinghouse grounds, the battle continued for three miles to what is now Battlefield Park. Eventually the British pushed the Americans back but not before suffering heavy losses. The British appeared on the Americans' right flank at around 2 p.m. With Hazen's brigades outflanked, Sullivan, Stephen, and Stirling tried to reposition their troops to meet the unexpected British threat to their right flank. Howe was slow to attack, which bought time for the Americans to position some of their men on high ground at Birmingham Meetinghouse, about a mile (1.6 km) north of Chadds Ford.[5] By 4 p.m., the British attacked, with Stephen's and Stirling's divisions receiving the brunt of the assault; both American divisions lost ground fast.
[edit] American counterattack dissolves into retreat
The battlefield today, south of Meeting House Hill
Sullivan attacked a group of Hessian troops trying to outflank Stirling's men near Meeting House Hill and bought some time for most of Stirling's men to withdraw, but returned British fire forced Sullivan's men to retreat. At this point, slightly after 4 p.m., Washington and Greene arrived with reinforcements to try to hold off the British, who now occupied Meeting House Hill. These reinforcements, combined with the remnants of Sullivan's, Stephen's, and Stirling's divisions, stopped the pursuing British for nearly an hour but were eventually forced to retreat. The Americans were also forced to leave behind many of their cannon on Meeting House Hill because almost all of their artillery horses were killed.
Knyphausen, on the east bank of the Brandywine, launched an attack against the weakened American center across Chadds Ford, breaking through the divisions commanded by Wayne and William Maxwell and forcing them to retreat and leave behind most of their cannon. Armstrong's militia, never engaged in the fighting, also decided to retreat from their positions. Further north, Greene sent Brigadier General George Weedon's troops to cover the road just outside the town of Dilworth to hold off the British long enough for the rest of the Continental Army to retreat. Darkness brought the British pursuit to a standstill, which then allowed Weedon's force to retreat. The defeated Americans retreated to Chester where most of them arrived at midnight, with stragglers arriving until morning. The American retreat was well-organized largely due to the efforts of Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, who, although wounded, created a rally point that allowed for a more orderly retreat before being treated for his wound.[6]
[edit] Losses
Nation Makers depicts a scene from the battle, by Howard Pyle, a summer resident of Chadds Ford. The painting is displayed in the Brandywine River Museum
George Washington's Headquarters
The official British casualty list detailed 587 casualties: 93 killed (eight officers, seven sergeants and 78 rank and file); 488 wounded (49 officers, 40 sergeants, four drummers and 395 rank and file); and six rank and file missing unaccounted for.[2] Only 40 of the British Army’s casualties were Hessians.[7] Historian Thomas J. McGuire writes that, "American estimates of British losses run as high as 2,000, based on distant observation and sketchy, unreliable reports".[2]
No casualty return for the American army at Brandywine survives and no figures, official or otherwise, were ever released. Most accounts of the American loss were from the British side. One initial report by a British officer recorded American casualties at over 200 killed, around 750 wounded, and 400 prisoners taken, many of them wounded. A member of General Howe's staff claimed that 400 rebels were buried on the field by the victors.[8] Another British officer wrote that, "The Enemy had 502 dead in the field".[2] General Howe's report to the British Secretary of War, Lord Germain, said that the Americans, "had about 300 men killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 made prisoners".[9] On September 14, 350 wounded Americans were taken from the British camp at Dilworth to a newly-established hospital at Wilmington, Delaware.[10] This would suggest that of the "near 400" prisoners reported by Howe, only about 50 had surrendered unwounded. If General Greene's estimate of the total American loss was accurate, then they had between 1,160 and 1,260 killed, wounded or deserted during the battle. The British also captured 11 out of 14 of the American artillery guns. Among the American wounded was the Marquis de Lafayette.
In addition to losses in battle, 315 men were posted as deserters from Washington's camp during this stage of the Philadelphia Campaign.[11]
[edit] Aftermath
The 7th Pennsylvania Regiments Brandywine flag
Although Howe had defeated the American army, his lack of cavalry prevented its total destruction. Washington had committed a serious error in leaving his right flank wide open and nearly brought about his army's annihilation had it not been for Sullivan, Stirling and Stephen's divisions, which fought for time. Evening was approaching and, in spite of the early start Cornwallis had made in the flanking manoeuvre, most of the American army was able to escape.
British and Patriot forces manoeuvred around each other for the next several days with only comparatively minor encounters such as the Battle of Paoli on the night of September 20–21.
The Continental Congress abandoned Philadelphia, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania for one day and then to York, Pennsylvania. Military supplies were moved out of the city to Reading, Pennsylvania. On September 26, 1777, British forces marched into Philadelphia unopposed.
The Battle of Boston
Battle of Boston (1775-1776)
Background
From the establishment of the first British colony in North America in 1607, the government in London had engaged in the practice of salutary neglect. The colonies, which numbered thirteen by 1735, were primarily seen in London as a convenient place to send malcontents and criminals. The colonies over time developed their own society and political views with little input or interest from the mother country. That began to change in 1754. When colonial and French forces clashed near Fort Duquesne (modern Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), the impetus began for a series of events that culminated in an armed conflict between En-gland and her allies in both North America and Europe against France and her allies in the same locations. The war, denoted variously as the French and Indian War, Great War for Empire, or Seven Years War, brought about the first serious cooperation between England and her long-ignored colonies.
After early setbacks, English troops aided by colonial militia gained control of Canada by 1760. The end of the fighting in Europe in 1763 led to the signing of the Treaty of Paris. France was expelled from Canada and England was awarded all her lands east of the Mississippi River and north of the Great Lakes. The successful joint venture between mother and colonies led to the view in London that North America, far from being simply a dumping ground for undesirables, was both a profitable possession and a potential source of tax revenue to relieve the overwhelming debt incurred by the war. The colonists soon came to regret the reestablished relationship.
Although on the surface England and the colonies should have had much in common, 150 years of isolation had brought about in North America a radically different set of economic, political, and religious views. Although the laws passed by Parliament were in reality none too burdensome, any rules at all (especially without any direct input in the decision making) were too many for the colonists. Through the 1760s increased English legislation concerning North America became more and more bothersome to the local population. Economic pressure exerted through colonial embargoes riled Parliament, while violent incidents like the “Boston Massacre” inflamed colonial passions. When, in December 1773, insurgents floated 45 tons of tea in Boston harbor, Parliament had had enough. The Coercive Acts, passed in the spring of 1774 to punish the hotheads in Massachusetts, were deemed intolerable by the colonists.
In September 1774, representatives from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia. They began yet another embargo, but more important they directly challenged the English government. In the Suffolk Resolutions, the Continental Congress defied the Coercive Acts and promised to kidnap British officers if any colonists were arrested for violating the acts. They also vowed military action would be taken if the garrison of redcoats in Boston made any threatening moves. King George III had no choice but to send more troops, for then as now no government can negotiate with terrorists. On 19 April 1775 a force of British soldiers marched out of Boston to destroy stockpiles of rebel arms some 16 miles away in the town of Concord. Their quick disposal of a small force of “Minutemen” militia at Lexington aroused the countryside, and the 450-man force (which found nothing in Concord) found itself harassed by hundreds of angry farmers on the long march back to their base. The relief force of 1,200 men became but a larger target to the colonists, who inflicted almost 300 casualties on the British by nightfall. Within days 20,000 angry farmers had Boston surrounded.
The Battle
Command of this motley crew fell to Massachusetts militia Major General Artemus Ward, who exercised direct control over the northern half of the men surrounding the city while detailing John Thomas to command the southern half. Units from Connecticut and New Hampshire quickly reinforced the Massachusetts farmers, and even colonies as far away as South Carolina raised units and money. There was little organization and even less supplies, but at first there was no shortage of spirit.
In Boston, Thomas Gage did little. His 4,000 men remained relatively idle while waiting for reinforcements. The government in London did not see the same emergency that Gage did and so sent but 1,700 more soldiers and three more generals: William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne.
If the colonists were to make this siege work, they needed artillery. A Connecticut captain named Benedict Arnold suggested a raid on Fort Ticonderoga at the lower end of Lake Champlain. Arnold caught up to a force of backwoodsmen from Vermont under the command of Ethan Allen, who had conceived of the same idea. Together, they stole into the sleepy fort at dawn on 10 May and took the garrison without a shot. Some 100 cannon and howitzers were now at their disposal, if they could be transported out of the mountains to Boston, 150 miles away.
The Continental Congress reconvened on 10 May. After a hollow gesture of peace toward Parliament they appointed George Washington to command the American forces. He had served in the French and Indian War, was wealthy, and was a southerner, from Virginia.
The greatest anger was in the northern colonies; restrictions on freedoms had aroused some southerners but most remained loyal. The Congress hoped that appointing a southerner to command would motivate southern colonies to greater involvement. It was for the most part a futile dream.
Before Washington arrived, 1,200 Connecticut troops under the leadership of Israel Putnam and William Prescott seized Breed’s Hill on the Charlestown peninsula just across the harbor from Boston. In the darkness they erected a strong earthwork that defied cannon shot from the British warship Lively on the morning of 17 June. Rather than challenge the weak siege lines around the city and cut off the rebel force at the neck of the peninsula, Gage ordered William Howe across the harbor to assault the hill with 2,200 men. An afternoon’s fighting resulted in an American withdrawal, but at a cost to Howe’s force of almost 1,100 casualties. Although the colonists lost about 400 men, their withdrawal owed more to a lack of ammunition than British action.
Washington took command at Boston on 2 July. In spite of the moral victory of Breed’s Hill (better known—erroneously—as Bunker Hill), discipline was almost nonexistent and spirits were beginning to flag. Washington’s job was to transform a collection of colonial militias into a single Continental Army, and he set about with great firmness. Eight men he deemed to have been cowardly at Breed’s Hill were brought before a court-martial and convicted. “He sought permission from the Continental Congress to hang deserters; and issued a succession of orders intended to bring cleanliness and order to the camps and subdue all manner of breaches of discipline, from drunkenness to lewdness” (Hibbert, Redcoats and Rebels, p. 68). This show of order offended many independent-minded militiamen, who decided to go home short of their promised tour of duty, which was to end on 31 December. Still, Washington managed to transform the units into a force of some 17,000 men under a single command. Gage, then Howe (who took command in October), did nothing to interfere with the strengthening of the colonial effort, in spite of the fact that British forces grew to almost 11,000 by November.
While Washington was whipping his army into shape, former Boston bookseller Henry Knox was sent to Ticonderoga to fetch the artillery. A self-taught artillerist and engineer, Knox oversaw the dismantling and transport of the guns through extremely difficult terrain down to Boston. When the first guns arrived in December, the hills on the Charlestown peninsula that the redcoats had bought at such an expensive price had been abandoned. All the troops had been brought into Boston for winter quarters, and the high ground all around the city was free for the taking. Washington spent the first two months of 1776 gathering his artillery and placing it along his extended lines. On the night of 4–5 March a battery was hauled up Dorchester Heights to the south of Boston and dug in. Its sudden appearance looming over the British forces on the morning of the 5th spelled the garrison’s doom.
Howe prepared an assault on Dorchester, but a well-timed storm dispersed most of his boats and he canceled it. Through the winter his force had suffered dwindling food supplies and much more intense cold than they were used to experiencing. Although the harbor was open, few supply ships visited and those that did sold their goods dearly. Discipline eroded through inactivity, which Howe refused to alter. He never attacked the colonial forces: “in the unlikely event of this being successful, it would have served no purpose, since he had no transport to allow him to take advantage of it by pursuing a defeated enemy. He decided that he had no choice, therefore, but to wait for the ships to take his men and equipment away” (Hibbert, Redcoats and Rebels, p. 73). Seeing the guns threatening his position, Howe sent word to the rebels that if he and his men were allowed to sail away unmolested, they would not destroy the city on their way out. Thus, the entire command along with perhaps 1,000 loyal Bostonians boarded what ships wer available and sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia, on 17 March.
Outcome
The British should never have lost Boston. Any serious attempt to keep the garrison supplied would have made the defense too strong for Washington ever to have successfully assaulted. Conversely, the besieging force (although large in number) was poorly organized and trained. Although Washington did wonders once he took command, any time before that point a vigorous British sortie would probably have collapsed the entire colonial effort. Gage, whose twenty years’ residence in the colonies had softened him to effective action, was succeeded by Howe, whose shocking experience on the slopes of Breed’s Hill ruined him for any future aggressive action. Their inactivity was made worse by their snobbery. Many Bostonians remained loyal to the Crown and volunteered to fight, but as would happen so many times throughout the American Revolution the British officers sneered at colonial assistance. In Boston, as in so many other regions throughout the war, the British succeeded in making enemies out of friends.
By capturing Boston, most of the British forces in North America were expelled. This was the cause of much rejoicing on the part of the rebels, and was fatefully timed. In January 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a widely read work that argued the advantages of a republic over a monarchy. As it meshed with the political views of most colonists, who had been electing their own leaders locally almost from the beginning, it was wildly successful: some 100,000 copies were sold in 1776 in a population throughout the colonies of 2.5 million. A similar sales figure in the United States today would be roughly 11 million copies. The intellectual argument Paine made, on top of the success Washington achieved, convinced many heretofore reluctant colonists that more was needed than merely a recognition of rights as British subjects. On 2 July 1776 the Continental Congress voted to declare independence from Great Britain; a Declaration of Independence expounding on the rationale for that action was adopted two days later.
Although independence was declared, it was seven more years before Britain agreed in 1783. In the shorter term, 4 July 1776 had a much more negative outlook, for it marked the return of British troops to the colonies: Howe’s invasion of New York City marked the beginning of a dark time in the Revolution.
Background
From the establishment of the first British colony in North America in 1607, the government in London had engaged in the practice of salutary neglect. The colonies, which numbered thirteen by 1735, were primarily seen in London as a convenient place to send malcontents and criminals. The colonies over time developed their own society and political views with little input or interest from the mother country. That began to change in 1754. When colonial and French forces clashed near Fort Duquesne (modern Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), the impetus began for a series of events that culminated in an armed conflict between En-gland and her allies in both North America and Europe against France and her allies in the same locations. The war, denoted variously as the French and Indian War, Great War for Empire, or Seven Years War, brought about the first serious cooperation between England and her long-ignored colonies.
After early setbacks, English troops aided by colonial militia gained control of Canada by 1760. The end of the fighting in Europe in 1763 led to the signing of the Treaty of Paris. France was expelled from Canada and England was awarded all her lands east of the Mississippi River and north of the Great Lakes. The successful joint venture between mother and colonies led to the view in London that North America, far from being simply a dumping ground for undesirables, was both a profitable possession and a potential source of tax revenue to relieve the overwhelming debt incurred by the war. The colonists soon came to regret the reestablished relationship.
Although on the surface England and the colonies should have had much in common, 150 years of isolation had brought about in North America a radically different set of economic, political, and religious views. Although the laws passed by Parliament were in reality none too burdensome, any rules at all (especially without any direct input in the decision making) were too many for the colonists. Through the 1760s increased English legislation concerning North America became more and more bothersome to the local population. Economic pressure exerted through colonial embargoes riled Parliament, while violent incidents like the “Boston Massacre” inflamed colonial passions. When, in December 1773, insurgents floated 45 tons of tea in Boston harbor, Parliament had had enough. The Coercive Acts, passed in the spring of 1774 to punish the hotheads in Massachusetts, were deemed intolerable by the colonists.
In September 1774, representatives from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia. They began yet another embargo, but more important they directly challenged the English government. In the Suffolk Resolutions, the Continental Congress defied the Coercive Acts and promised to kidnap British officers if any colonists were arrested for violating the acts. They also vowed military action would be taken if the garrison of redcoats in Boston made any threatening moves. King George III had no choice but to send more troops, for then as now no government can negotiate with terrorists. On 19 April 1775 a force of British soldiers marched out of Boston to destroy stockpiles of rebel arms some 16 miles away in the town of Concord. Their quick disposal of a small force of “Minutemen” militia at Lexington aroused the countryside, and the 450-man force (which found nothing in Concord) found itself harassed by hundreds of angry farmers on the long march back to their base. The relief force of 1,200 men became but a larger target to the colonists, who inflicted almost 300 casualties on the British by nightfall. Within days 20,000 angry farmers had Boston surrounded.
The Battle
Command of this motley crew fell to Massachusetts militia Major General Artemus Ward, who exercised direct control over the northern half of the men surrounding the city while detailing John Thomas to command the southern half. Units from Connecticut and New Hampshire quickly reinforced the Massachusetts farmers, and even colonies as far away as South Carolina raised units and money. There was little organization and even less supplies, but at first there was no shortage of spirit.
In Boston, Thomas Gage did little. His 4,000 men remained relatively idle while waiting for reinforcements. The government in London did not see the same emergency that Gage did and so sent but 1,700 more soldiers and three more generals: William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne.
If the colonists were to make this siege work, they needed artillery. A Connecticut captain named Benedict Arnold suggested a raid on Fort Ticonderoga at the lower end of Lake Champlain. Arnold caught up to a force of backwoodsmen from Vermont under the command of Ethan Allen, who had conceived of the same idea. Together, they stole into the sleepy fort at dawn on 10 May and took the garrison without a shot. Some 100 cannon and howitzers were now at their disposal, if they could be transported out of the mountains to Boston, 150 miles away.
The Continental Congress reconvened on 10 May. After a hollow gesture of peace toward Parliament they appointed George Washington to command the American forces. He had served in the French and Indian War, was wealthy, and was a southerner, from Virginia.
The greatest anger was in the northern colonies; restrictions on freedoms had aroused some southerners but most remained loyal. The Congress hoped that appointing a southerner to command would motivate southern colonies to greater involvement. It was for the most part a futile dream.
Before Washington arrived, 1,200 Connecticut troops under the leadership of Israel Putnam and William Prescott seized Breed’s Hill on the Charlestown peninsula just across the harbor from Boston. In the darkness they erected a strong earthwork that defied cannon shot from the British warship Lively on the morning of 17 June. Rather than challenge the weak siege lines around the city and cut off the rebel force at the neck of the peninsula, Gage ordered William Howe across the harbor to assault the hill with 2,200 men. An afternoon’s fighting resulted in an American withdrawal, but at a cost to Howe’s force of almost 1,100 casualties. Although the colonists lost about 400 men, their withdrawal owed more to a lack of ammunition than British action.
Washington took command at Boston on 2 July. In spite of the moral victory of Breed’s Hill (better known—erroneously—as Bunker Hill), discipline was almost nonexistent and spirits were beginning to flag. Washington’s job was to transform a collection of colonial militias into a single Continental Army, and he set about with great firmness. Eight men he deemed to have been cowardly at Breed’s Hill were brought before a court-martial and convicted. “He sought permission from the Continental Congress to hang deserters; and issued a succession of orders intended to bring cleanliness and order to the camps and subdue all manner of breaches of discipline, from drunkenness to lewdness” (Hibbert, Redcoats and Rebels, p. 68). This show of order offended many independent-minded militiamen, who decided to go home short of their promised tour of duty, which was to end on 31 December. Still, Washington managed to transform the units into a force of some 17,000 men under a single command. Gage, then Howe (who took command in October), did nothing to interfere with the strengthening of the colonial effort, in spite of the fact that British forces grew to almost 11,000 by November.
While Washington was whipping his army into shape, former Boston bookseller Henry Knox was sent to Ticonderoga to fetch the artillery. A self-taught artillerist and engineer, Knox oversaw the dismantling and transport of the guns through extremely difficult terrain down to Boston. When the first guns arrived in December, the hills on the Charlestown peninsula that the redcoats had bought at such an expensive price had been abandoned. All the troops had been brought into Boston for winter quarters, and the high ground all around the city was free for the taking. Washington spent the first two months of 1776 gathering his artillery and placing it along his extended lines. On the night of 4–5 March a battery was hauled up Dorchester Heights to the south of Boston and dug in. Its sudden appearance looming over the British forces on the morning of the 5th spelled the garrison’s doom.
Howe prepared an assault on Dorchester, but a well-timed storm dispersed most of his boats and he canceled it. Through the winter his force had suffered dwindling food supplies and much more intense cold than they were used to experiencing. Although the harbor was open, few supply ships visited and those that did sold their goods dearly. Discipline eroded through inactivity, which Howe refused to alter. He never attacked the colonial forces: “in the unlikely event of this being successful, it would have served no purpose, since he had no transport to allow him to take advantage of it by pursuing a defeated enemy. He decided that he had no choice, therefore, but to wait for the ships to take his men and equipment away” (Hibbert, Redcoats and Rebels, p. 73). Seeing the guns threatening his position, Howe sent word to the rebels that if he and his men were allowed to sail away unmolested, they would not destroy the city on their way out. Thus, the entire command along with perhaps 1,000 loyal Bostonians boarded what ships wer available and sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia, on 17 March.
Outcome
The British should never have lost Boston. Any serious attempt to keep the garrison supplied would have made the defense too strong for Washington ever to have successfully assaulted. Conversely, the besieging force (although large in number) was poorly organized and trained. Although Washington did wonders once he took command, any time before that point a vigorous British sortie would probably have collapsed the entire colonial effort. Gage, whose twenty years’ residence in the colonies had softened him to effective action, was succeeded by Howe, whose shocking experience on the slopes of Breed’s Hill ruined him for any future aggressive action. Their inactivity was made worse by their snobbery. Many Bostonians remained loyal to the Crown and volunteered to fight, but as would happen so many times throughout the American Revolution the British officers sneered at colonial assistance. In Boston, as in so many other regions throughout the war, the British succeeded in making enemies out of friends.
By capturing Boston, most of the British forces in North America were expelled. This was the cause of much rejoicing on the part of the rebels, and was fatefully timed. In January 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a widely read work that argued the advantages of a republic over a monarchy. As it meshed with the political views of most colonists, who had been electing their own leaders locally almost from the beginning, it was wildly successful: some 100,000 copies were sold in 1776 in a population throughout the colonies of 2.5 million. A similar sales figure in the United States today would be roughly 11 million copies. The intellectual argument Paine made, on top of the success Washington achieved, convinced many heretofore reluctant colonists that more was needed than merely a recognition of rights as British subjects. On 2 July 1776 the Continental Congress voted to declare independence from Great Britain; a Declaration of Independence expounding on the rationale for that action was adopted two days later.
Although independence was declared, it was seven more years before Britain agreed in 1783. In the shorter term, 4 July 1776 had a much more negative outlook, for it marked the return of British troops to the colonies: Howe’s invasion of New York City marked the beginning of a dark time in the Revolution.
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